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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

SECOND SERIES.

VOLUME THE SECOND.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LIBRARY

NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

LONDON:
JOHN MUKKAY, ALBEMAELE STEEET.

1866.

These EXPEEniENrs, it is true, are kot east; still thet are in the power of eveet

THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVEi: LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANT SUCH IS BEYOND THE I'OWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE F0R5IS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF
THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.

Von Thaer, Principles of Agriculture.

LONDON: PRINTED BT WILLLiSI CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS.

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
Second Series.

Statistics:— ^^'^'^

Vital Statistics for the six niontlis ending December 31, Ibbo i

Meteoroloijy ditto ditto •• m, "^'i

Price of Provisions — Pauperism ditto •• v, vui

Imports of Corn, &c. ditto ditto •• viii

British Wheat sold, and Average Prices ix, x

Certain Articles of Foreip;n and Colonial Production imported

in the three years 18G3-G5 ; and their quantities .. .. X

Vital Statistics for the six mouths ending June 30, 18G(J .. xi

Emigi-ation ditto ditto •• ^i
Meterorology ditto ditto xiv-xvii

Prices of Provisions— Pauperism"" ditto •• xviii

British Wheat Sold, and Average Prices xi>^

Imports of Corn and other Produce ^^

ARTICLE , ^•^*^^

I.— On Middle-Class Education, having reference to the Improve-
ment of the Education of those who depend upon the Culti-
vation of the Soil for their Support. By P. Vallentine.

Prize Essay ■'■

II._:\Iiddle-Class Education, Avith special reference to our Grammar

Schools. By the Eev. Lewis Evans 19

HI.— Middle-Class Education, having reference to the Improvement
of the Education of those who depend upon the Cultivation
of the Soil for their Support. By Eev. W. H. Beever, M.A. 29
IV.— The Management of Cattle. By William Little. Prize Essay 4y

Y,_On Cross-Breeding Cattle. By G. Murray 52

VI — On Painfall, Natural Drainage, and Subterranean Water

Storage. By Professor D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.E.S., &c. .. 62
VII. — The Poultry of France. (From materials furnished by the

' Journal d'Agriculture Pratique.') By P. H. Frere .. .. 79
VIII. — On Disinfectants : with a Eeport of further Experiments, &c.

By Dr. A. Voelcker 93

IX.— On the Management of Ponds and Wells. By R. Orlebar .. 10 <
X,— On the Comparative Cheapness and Advantages of Iron and
W^ood in the Construction of Eoofs for Farm-Buildings.
By Arthur Bailey Denton (Junior). Prize Essay .. .. HG
XI. — On the Comparative Cheapness and Advantages of Iron and
Wood in the Construction of Eoofs for Farm-Buildings.
By Philip D. Tuckett, Land Agent and Surveyor .. .. 140
XII. — Eural Economy of the Xetherlands ; Eeport read to Academy

, of Moral and Political Science. Translated by H. Evershed 118

XIII.— On Anthyllis A^ulneraria (Lady's Fingers) as a Fodder Plant.

g By James Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c 161

^ XIV.— On the Cultivation of Flax in Beloium. Eeport by E. Percy

^ Ffrench, Second Secretary to H.B.M.'s Legation at Brussels 168

XV. — Professor Voelcker's Annual Eeport _ ■• 180

XVI. — Upon the Xature of Diseases in Plants. By Baron Liebig .. 187
XVII.— Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in
the Metropolis ; with Letter on arrangements for Meat-
Markets. By Eobert Herbert 195

XVIII.— On the Composition of Orange Globe Mangolds, Bulbs and

Tops. By Augustus Voelcker 201

11 CONTENTS.

ARTICLE. PAGE

XIX. — Summary of tlie Proceedings of the Pi03'fil Agricultural Society
of England in reference to Agricultural Education. By
S. Benj. L. Druce, Hon. Secretary of the Committee .. .. 209
XX. — Experiments with Artificial Manure as Top-dressing, used at

Wonston Manor Earm, Hants. By W. J, Moreton Pocock 226

XXI.— The Cattle-Plague. By Howard Peed 230

XXII. — A Report on the Farming of Leicestershire. By W. J.

Moscrop. Prize Essay 289

XXIII. — On Increasing our Home Production of Poultry. By John

Algernon Clarke 338

XXIV. — Mountain Breeds of Sheep. By Henry H. Disou. Prize Essay 360
XXV. — Report of the Improvement of Grass-land on the Manor Farm,

Braj^don, Wilts. By Dr. A.A^oelcker and Professor Coleman 377
XXVI. — On Agricultural Statistics and the Cattle Census. By J. Lewis 393
XXVII. — The Improvement of Waste Lands connected with Mines. By

W. Little. Prize Essay " .. .. 430

XXVIII.— The Supply of Meat to Large Towns. By Robert Herbert .. 440

XXIX.— On Clovers. By James Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. .. 446

XXX.— General Cattle Mutual Insurance Fund. By W. Farr, F.R.S. 455

XXXI. — Field Experiments on Clover-Seeds. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker 472

XXXII. — Statistics of Live-Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in

the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert 491

Aestkact Report of Agricultural Discussions :

The Cattle Plague. A Lecture by Professor Simonds 270

The Present State of the Cattle-Plague and the Practical Working
of the " Cattle Diseases Prevention Act, 1866." By Earl

Cathcart 496

The Conditions to be; observed in carrying out Agricultural Experi-
ments in the Field. By Dr. Voelcker 513

The Supply of Meat to Large Towns. By R. Herbert 526

Insurance of Live Stock, By W. Farr 534

Sheep wrstts Cattle. By W. Torr 549

APPENDIX. PAGE

List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1866 .. i, xvii

Standing Committees for 1866 iii, xix

Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, itc vi, xxi

Reports of the Council to the General Meeting, December 13, 1865 ; and

May 22, 1866 vii, xxii

Yearly Cash Account, from 1st January to December 31, 1865 ,. .. xi
Cash Accounts and Balance-sheets, from 1st July to Dec. 31, 1865 ;

and from Jan. 1 to June 30, 1866 xii, xxviii

Country Meeting Account, Plymouth, 1865 xiv

Prizes offered in connection with Cambridge Local Examination, Dec, 1866 xxx
Essays and Reports. — Awards for 1865-1866 ; and Prizes for 1867 xxxiii-xxxvi
Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privileges xv, xvi, xxxvii, xxxviii

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics,
&c., -nhich are in all cases to be placed at the beginnivg of the Volume: the lettering at the back to
include a statement of the year as well as the volume; the first volimie belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In reprints of the Jounial, all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the liody of
the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted ; the Koman numeral folios,
however (for convenience of reference) were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained.

CONTENTS OF PAET I., VOL. II.
Second Seeies.

Statistics : — page

Vital Statistics for the six months ending December 31, 1865 i

Meteoroloo;y ditto ditto .. m, vi

Price of Provisions ditto ditto .. v, viii

Pauperism ^t '^'^

Imports of Corn, &c. ditto ditto .. viil

Britisli Wheat sold, and Average Prices ix, X

Certain Articles of Foreign and Colonial Production imported

in the three years 1863-65 ; and their quantities .... X

ARTICLE PAGE

I. — On Middle-Class Education, having reference to the Improve-
ment of the Education of those who depend upon the Culti-
vation of the Soil for their Support. By R. Vallentine.

Prize Essay 1

II. — Middle-Class Education, with special reference to our Grammar

Schools. By the Rev. Lewis Evans 19

III. — Middle-Class Education, having reference to the Improvement
of the Education of those who depend upon the Cultivation
of the Soil for their Support. By the Rev. W. Holt Beever,

M.A., Oxon 29

lY._The Management of Cattle. By William Little. Prize Essay 45
V. — On Cross-Breeding Cattle. By G. Murray 52

YI. — On Rainfall, Natural Drainage, and Subterranean Water

Storage. By Professor D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S., &c. .. 62

Vn. — The Poultry of France. (From materials furnished by the

' Journal d'Agriculture Pratique.') By P. H. Frere .. .. 79

VIII. — On Disinfectants : being the substance of a Lecture delivered
in December, 1865, with a Report of further Experiments,
&c. By Dr. A. Voelcker 93

IX.— On the Management of Ponds and Wells. By R. Orlebar .. 107

X. — On the Comparative Cheapness and Advantages of Iron and
Wood in the Construction of Roofs for Farm-Buildings.
By Arthur Bailey Denton (Jimior). Prize Essay .. .. 116

XI. — On the Comparative Cheapness and Advantages of Iron and
Wood in the Construction of Roofs for Farm-Buildings.
By Philip D. Tuckett, Land Agent and Surveyor .. .. 140

XII. — Rural Economy of the Xetherlands ; being a Report read by
M. de Lavergne to the Academy of Moral and Political
Science. Translated from the ' Journal d'Agriculture
Pratique,' by H. Evershed 148

11 CONTENTS.

ARTICLE, PAGE

XIII. — On Antliyllis Vulneraria (Lady's Fingers) as a Fodder Plant.
By James Biickman, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c., Professor of
Geology and Piural Economy 161

XIV. — On the Cultivation of Flax in Belgium. Eeport by Pi. Percy

Ffrench, Second Secretary to H.B.M.'s Legation at Brussels 168

XV. — Professor Voelcker's Annual Pieport 180

XVI. — Upon the Nature of Diseases in Plants. By Baron Liebig .. 187

XVII. — Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in
the Metropolis ; with Letter on arrangements for Meat-
Markets. By Eobert Herbert 195

XVIII. — On the Composition of Orange Globe Mangolds, Bulbs and

Tops. By Augustus Voelcker 201

XIX. — Summary of the Proceedings of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England in reference to Agricultural Education. By
S. Benj. L. Druce, Hon. Secretary of the Committee .. .. 209

XX. — Experiments with Artificial Manure as Top-dressing, used
at Wonston Manor Farm, Hants. By W. J. Moreton
Pocock 226

XXL— The Cattle-Plague. By Howard Eeed 230

Abstract Eeport of Agricultural Discussions :

The Cattle-Plague. A Lecture by Professor Simonds 270

APPENDIX.

PAGE

List of Officers of the Eoyal Agiicultural Society of England, 1866 .. i

Standing Committees for 1866 iii

Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, &c vi

Eeport of the Council to the General Meeting, December ItS, 1865 .. vii

Yearly Cash Account, from 1st January to December 31, 1865 .. .. xi

Cash Account and Balance-sheets, from 1st July to December 31, 1865 xii

Country Meeting Account, Plymouth, 1865 xiv

Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privileges .. .. xv, xvi

DIEECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, -with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics,
&c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume : the lettering at the bacl£ to
include a statement of the year as well as the volume ; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In reprints of the Journal, all Appendix matter (and in one instince an Article in the body of
the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios,
however (for convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained.

YITAL STATISTICS; METEOROLOaY ; PRICES
OF FOOD; PAUPERISM; BRITISH WHEAT
SOLD ; IMPORTATIONS OF CORN AND
OTHER PRODUCE.

The fads are selected from the Beports of the Registrar-General ; from
Mr. Glaisher's Meteorological Tables, and Notes on the Weather ; and
from Beturns of the Board of Trade.

THE UNITED KINGDOM.

The Eegisters of the United Kingdom show that 114,328 persons
married in the quarter that ended in June, 1865 ; that the births of
243,119 children, and the deaths of 148,167 persons of both sexes,
were registered in the three months ending on September 30tb. The
natural recorded increase of population in 92 days was 94,952, or
1032 daily. Exclusive of 11,490 foreigners, 53,564 emigrants sailed
from these islands in the September quarter. So about 582 emi-
gi'ants left daily ; and allowing for defects in registration, which has
only recently been established in Ireland, the increase in the home
population has been about 506 daily.

The estimated population in 1865 of England, Scotland, and
Ireland, was 29,772,294. The death-rate was 1-974 per cent, in the
three months ending September 30th.

During the three months scarlatina was epideunc in many parts
of England. Diarrhoea was prevalent and often fatal to children ;
and scattered cases of summer cholera were as usual fatal in unhealthy
districts. At the end of the quarter four deaths from cholera occurred
in Southampton, two of which were pronounced epidemic cholera.
The meteorology of the season was extraordinary, the potato was in
many places blighted, and the cattle were struck down by zymotic
disease ; yet the people were untouched by pestilence. While Mar-
seilles and Paris were smitten by cholera, London and the large
cities of the United Kingdom enjoyed immunity.

Births and Deaths in the Last Six Months of 1865 in
England and Wales.
In the third quarter (July, August, September) the number of
births was 181,642, the highest number that has ever been registered
YOL. II, — S. S. A

( n )

in the summer quarter. The mean daily number of births was 1974.
The birth-rate in the quarter was 3'429 per annum, against an
average of 3-325.

In the foui'th quarter (October, November, December) the number
of births was 179,020. The birth-rate was 3"370, against an average
rate of 3-297.

In the third quarter 113,404 deaths were registered, and the mor-
tality was at the annual rate of 2-141 per cent. ; that is -169 above
the average, but diflfering little from the mortality of the two pre-
ceding summer quarters.

This is the result of a balance of high and low rates in the eleven
divisions of the kingdom. The rate for all England was 21 per 1000
living in the two summer quarters of 1864 and 1865. Yorkshire
here proclaims aloud in tlie increasing death-rate her sanitary
failings ; the summer mortality rose from 24 to 25. In Lancashire
and Cheshire the mortality was 23 and 26. The Eastern Counties
also experienced an increase ; so did the Northern Counties. There
was a decisive fall in the mortality of Gloucestershire, Staffordshire,
Worcestershire, and Warwickshire, reducing the mortality of the
West Midland Counties from 22 to 19. Various sanitary improve-
ments have been carried out with good effect. This is also the case
with London, where the works of the Metropolitan Board are appa-
rently beginning to display their effects. The mortality of London
in the summer quarter of 1864 was at the rate of 24 ; in the summer
of 1865 it was 22.

In the fourth quarter 121 ,304 deaths were registered ; and the mor-
tality was at the rate of 2-284 per cent, annually. It was lower than
it had been in the same quarter of 1864, but slightly higher than
the autumnal average (2-180).

The rate of mortality in the country districts was about 19 in
1000 living; in the town districts nearly 26, and in the kingdom
generally nearly 23 per 1000 living.

The mortality was lowest in the South- Western Counties (19),
highest in the North- \\'estern Counties (29) ; thus the annual rate
was 10 per thousand higher in Lancashire and Cheshire round the
Mersey than it was in the counties between the Bristol Channel and
the British channel.

The following Table shows how great is the waste of human life
in many large towns where the productive industry of the nation
is most active, and where science is applied to almost every purpose
except the preservation of health : —

( III )

Estimated

Population

in the Middle

of the Year

1865.

Births
in

Deaths
in

Annual Rate to
1000 living during

Mean
Tempera-

RainfaU
in inches

Cities, &C.

13 Weeks

ending

30th Dec,

1865.

13 Weeks
ending

30th Dec,
1865.

the 13 Weeks ending
30th Dec, 1865.

ture in
13 Weeks

ending
30th Dec,

in

13 Weeks

ending

30th Dec,

Births.

Deaths.

1865.

1856.

Total of 1 1 large towns

5,586,870

51,212

39,773

36-12

28-05

45-3

8*8

London

3,013,494

26,544

18,393

35-33

24-05

46-0

9-2

Liverpool (Borough)

476,368

4,758

4,861

40*09

40*96

47-5

5-8

Manchester (City)

354,930

3,172

3.156

35-87

35-69

43-7

8-5

Salford (Borough)

110,833

1,008

949

36-50

34-37

45-3

8-1

Birmingham (Borough)

327,842

3, 210

2,145

39-30

26-26

45-2

8-4

Leeds f Borough)

224,025

2,379

1,841

42-62

32*98

44*8

8*1

Bristol (City) .. ..

161,809

1,450

967

35*97

23-99

46*2

11*6

Hull (Borough) .. ..

103,747

972

754

37-60

29-17

Edinburgh (City)

174,180

1,492

1,254

34-38

28-90

43-4

5-8

Glasgow (City) .. ..

423,723

4,201

3,434

39*79

39*53

43*9

12*4

Dublia (City and some)
suburbs) /

317,666

2,026

2,019

25*60

25*51

46-6

10*0

METEOEOLOGY.

During the first three weets of July the weather was unsettled ;
the temperature of the air was alternately in excess and defect.
Eain fell frequently between the 6th and the 18th of July all over
the British Islands, and some complaints were heard of mildew in
the crops. The potato crop which had needed moisture became very
promising after the rain. About the 20th of July the weather became
clear and dry — a change which proved most beneficial to the growing
as well as to the maturing crops. Till the 30th day the temperature
was in excess to the amount of 2° daily. On the 31st the weather
changed again to cold and wet : harvest-work was a good deal in-
terrupted. In the first week of August indications of the potato
disease were seen both in Ireland and England. The weather con-
tinued unsettled, rain fell heavily in various parts of the country,
and the deficiency of temperature amounted to 3° daily. Harvest-
work was stopped for several days together, and much uneasiness
was felt about the crops, of which by far the larger portion in the
United Kingdom was still standing. The potato crop also displayed
increased symptoms of disease. On the 2uth the weather improved
a little, and there were intei'vals of bright sunshine. From the 20th
day to the end of the month the temperature was in excess to the
amount of one degree daily. The month of August was very un-
favourable to the crops.

With September came an auspicious change : the temperature was
high, there was but little cloud, either night or day ; the sun shone
with great brilliancy, harvest-work proceeded simultaneously over
England, Ireland, and Scotland. In many places very little rain
fell, not amounting in the whole month to one-tenth of an inch ; the

( IV )

greatest fall at any place was 1-9 inches at Cockermoutli in Cumber-
land. The reading of the barometer was remarkably high. The
temperature frequently exceeded 80° at places south of 53° latitude,
and in some cases rose to 85°, 86°, and 87°. The average daily
excess of temperature was 7i° for the whole month, which proved
to be the hottest month of the year. In consequence of this
remarkable weather, the cereal harvest was generally completed
earlier than it has been here for many years past. The yield of
the wheat crop was spoken of as variable both in quality and
quantity, and was thought to fall short of an average. The barley
crop was not so deficient.* At the end of the month rain was much
needed to assist the working of the plough, and to supply water
for cattle, as many ponds were dried up.

The mean temperature of these three months was G2°'5 ; in the
year 1859, for the same period, it was 62°"8 ; in 1857 was 63°.3 ; in
184G was 62°-6 ; in 1825 was 62°-3; in 1818 was 63°-5 ; in 1780 was
62°-7 ; and in 1779 was 63°-2. In all other years back to 1771 it
was below 02°.

The mean temperature of September was 63*9°, being 7° above the
average of the same month in the preceding 24 years, and 7° above
that of 1864. The nearest approach to this high temperature was
60°-3 in 1858; 60°-l in 1846; 60°-7 in 1818; 62°-3 in 1815; 60°-8
in 1795 ; and 60°'7 in 1779 ; so that this month was by more than
1^° of higher temperature than any on record.

Both the day and night temperatures were above their averages
in July and September, and were both below in August. The excess
of 9° by day and 5° by night in September is very remarkable.

The remarkably fine and dry weather which had prevailed in
September continued during the first week in October: the baro-
metrical reading during this time was about 30 in. ; at the beginning
of the second week there were indications of a change, the tempera-
ture fell, and the barometrical pressure decreased on ihe 12th day to
nearly 29 in., then increased rapidly to 29*9 in. by the 15th, and
decreased to below 29 in. by the 18th day; from this time rain fell
very heavily, and heavy gales of wind were experienced ; the weather
continued stormy to the end of the month, rain falling in abundance.
At the beginning of November there were frequent gales, and much
stormy weather; at about the 10th day the weather assumed a more
settled character, the barometrical reading ascended above the
average, and was nearly 30*4 in. on the 12th; from the 17th to the
22nd it decreased very rapidly, and was 28*8 in. on the last men-

* The light lands suffered geverely from the drought, the Eastern counties espe-
cially from a frost in May ; but the good, strong lands bore a full average crop of
cereals.— P. H. F.

( V )

tioned day, accompanied "by a fearful gale, acting with ruinous effects
on both land and sea. The reading of the barometer was very
unsettled during the remainder of the month.

December opened with light south-east winds, the air mild and
warm. The reading increased by the 11th day to 30-8 in. About
the middle of the month trees budded and daisies were in blossom.
Towards the end of the month the mercury fell quickly till it was
29-0 in. by the 29th. Frequent and violent gales occurred, causing
many shipwrecks. The force of the wind on the last day reached
2-i lbs. on the square foot, both at Greenwich and at Liverpool. The
temperature during the whole quarter, with the exception of a few
days about the middle of October, the beginning of November, and
the middle of December, was in excess of the average, to the daily
amount of lf°.

The fall of rain in the whole year (1865) was 29 in., and was
about 3i in. above the average.

PEICES OF PEOVISIONS.*

Third Quarter. — The average price of wheat was 43s. 3d. a quarter
during the three months ending with September 30th; thus it was a
shilling a quarter higher than in the corresponding season of 1864,
and 2s. 4c/. lower than in that of 1863. The price of wheat was
remarkably steady during the two years, the three months' average
ranging little above or below the average (40s. 9f/.) of the whole
period. The best potatoes at the Waterside Market, Southwark,
sold on an average at 85s. a ton ; so the price was lower by 15s. than
it was in the corresponding quarter of 1864, and somewhat lower
than the price of the same season in 1863.

Fourth Quarter. — The best potatoes at the Waterside Market,
Southwark, sold at prices ranging from 60s. to 90s. a ton. The
prices were much lower than in the autumn of 1864. The average
price of wheat was 44s. lOd. a quarter.

PAUPEEISM.

T7drd Quarter. — A gratifying reduction of pauperism was observ-
able ; during the last three siimmers the numbers of in-door and out-
door poor fell from 939,984 to 855,039 and to 836,761.

Fourth Quarter. — On an average 129,036 paupers received complete
relief in the workhouses; 725,259 paupers out of doors received
relief sufficient to supply some of their wants, but not enough for
subsistence. The numbers relieved in the woi-khouses scarcely
varied; the numbers out of doors fell from 804,941 to 771,879, and
to 725,259 in the last three autumnal quarters.

* For prices of meat, see Mr. Herbert's Eeport.

( VI )

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( VIII )

The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, and of Potatoes ; also the
AVERAGE Number of Paupers relieved on the last day of each Week ; and
the Mean Temperature ; in each of the Nine Quarters ending December 31st, 1865.

AVERAGK PkICES.

PAttt'EKISM.

Quarters
ending

Consols

(for
Money).

Wheat

per
Quarter

in
England

and
Wales.

Meat per lb. at Leadenhall

and Newgate Markets

(by the Carcase).

Best
I'otatoes
per Ton

at Waterside
Market,

South vvark.

Quarterly Average of the
Number of Paupers re-
lieved on the laat day of
each week.

Mean
Tempe-
rature at
Green-
wich.

Beef.

Mutton.

la-door. Out-door.

1863
Dec. 31

1864
Mar. 31

June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

1865
Mar. 31

June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

9~2'l
91

9ii

89|
891

89i
9oi
89i
88|

s. d.

40 6

40 4

39 7

42 3

38 5

38 4

40 6

43 3

44 10

4d.-6id.
Mean ^'^d.

4id.—e^d.
Mean 5^^.

Aid.—6id.
Mean c^ld.

Aid.—6id.
Mean ^^d.

Aid. — -jd.
Mean s^d-

Aid. — jd.
Mean 55^.

Ald.-6^d.
Mean 5frf.

A^d.— jd.
Mean 5|ii.

Aid.—6d.
Mean 5|(/.

Sd.—-!d.
Mean 6d.

Shd.-7d.
Mean 6Jrf.

5ld.—jd.
Mean 6ld.

iid.-7d.
Mean 6^0?.

Sid.-'jhl
Mean 6Jc^.

S\d.-7id.
Mean 6iJ.

6irf.— S^rf.
Mean -jld.

6irf.— 8|d.
Mean 7|(f.

5ii.-8irf.
Mean 6^rf.

60s. — 80s.
Mean 70s.

55s.— 70s.
Mean 6 2s. 6d.

40s. — 60s.
Mean 50s,

80s. — 120S.
Mean lOos.

80s. — 95 s.
Mean 87s. 6(Z.

85s.— 97s.
Mean 91s.

90s. — 115s.
Meani02s.6c?.

65s. lOOS.

Mean 85s.

60s. — 90s.
Mean 73s.

130,072

139,606

122,717
115,698
128,322

142,329
125,846
117,172
129,036

804,941

855,728
785,825
739,341
771,879

813,371
776,016
719,589
725,259

46-8

37-9

53-1

59*4
43-7

36-5
56-2

62-5
46*0

Quantities of AVheat, Wheatmeal and Flour, Barley, and Oats,
Imported into the United Kingdom in each of the last Six Months of 1865.

1865.

AVheat.

AVheatmeal
and Flour.

Barley.

Oats.

Third Quarter.

Four weeks, ending July 29
Four weeks, ending Aug. 26
Five weeks, ending Sept. 30

Fourth Quarter.

Four weeks, ending Oct. 28
Four weeks, ending ISov. 25
Five weeks, ending Dec. 3

cwts.
1,884,089

1,815,545
2,421,523

2,824,691
1,784,174
2,785,407

cwts.

272,014
231,686
372,544

280,454
354,974
813,302

cwts.
617,969
388,734
703,376

672,928

1,290,737
848,778

cwts.

995,104

900,703

709,384

809,468
440,583
814,454

Total in twenty-six weeks . .

13,515,429

2,324,974

4,522,522

4,669,696

The average weekly importation of wheat was in the third quarter 470,85 8 cwts.
and in the fourth quarter it was 568,790 cwts.

( IX )

Quantities of British "Wheat Sold in the Towns from wlncli Picturns are
received under ttie Act of tiie 27th and 28th Yictoria, cap. 87 ; and their
Average Prices : in each of the last Six Months of the Yeara 1861-65.

QUAXTiriES IN QuAnXERS.

1861.

1862.

1863. 1864.

1865.

quarters.

quarters.

quarters. quarters.

quarters.

Seventh month

159,152

163,720

162,817 257,510

222,961

Eighth month

208, 4CO

138,810

187,011 1 264,939

201,953

Ninth mouth (five weeks) . .

455,324

264,410

390,308 322,292

318,893

Tenth month

427,435

273,000

333,609 311,169

304,054

Eleventh month

345,028

265,160

325,209 302,446

295,632

Twelfth month (five weeks)

359,246

315,599

472,876 399,358

391,941

Average Pbices per Quarter.

1861.

1862.

1863.

1864.

! s. d. s. J.

Seventh month | 50 8 57 o

Eighth month I 50 8 I 57 8

Ninth month (five weeks) . . 54 7 56 i

Tenth month I 56 10 49 5

Eleventh month ! 59 10 | 49 o

Twelfth month (^five weeks) ! 60 lo [46 8

s. d.

46 7

46 2

44 6

40 10

39 II

40 9

i 42

! 43

42 o
38 9
38 10
3« 3

1865.

s. d.

42 10

43 3

44 o
41 10

45 7

46 8

Average Prices per Quarter of Wheat, Barley and Oats in the Third and
Fourth Quarters of 1865.

Third quarter
Fourth quarter

■\Vbeat.
s. d.

43 3

44 10

Barley.
S. d.
29 o
32 3

Oats.

d.

10

Value of Wheat Imported in each of the Twelve Years, 1854-65.

1854
1855
1856
1857

11,693,737
9,679,578

12,716,349
9,563,099

1859
i860

■ • 9,050,467

,. 8,713,532

.. 16,554,083

,. 19,051,464

The payment for wheat in 1865 was below that of any year in 1S60-64; not
equal to half of the payment in 1862.

1862

1864
1865

23,203,800

12,015 ,oc6

10,674,654

9,775,6x6

YOL. II. — S. S.

A 2

( X )

Wheat Imported in 1865 ; and Couxtries whence Imported.

Cwts.

Wheat from Kussia 8,093,879

Prussia 5,403,914

Denmark 641, 173

Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenbiirg.. .. 234,159

Mecklenburg 647,685

Hanse Towns 486,069

France 2,252,873

Turkey and Wallachia and Moldavia .. 574,185

Egypt io,o6j

United States 1,177,618

British North America 306,765

Other countries 1.114,480

Total 20,962,963

Certain Articles of Foreign and Colonial Production Imported in the
Three Years 18G3-65 ; and their Quantities.

1863.

1864.

1865.

Animals living : —

Oxen, Bulls and Cows number

Calves number

Sheep and Lambs .. .. number
Swine and Hogs . . . . number

Bones (burnt or not; or asl
animal charcoal) . . . . / ^

Cotton, Raw cwts.

Flax cwts.

Guano: — From Peru .. .. tons

From all other parts tons

Total Guano .. tons

Hemp cwts.

Hops cwts.

Hides Untanned : — Dry .. cwts.
Wet .. cwts.

Petroleum tuns

Oilseed Cakes tons

Potatoes cwts.

Bacon and Hams cwts.

Salt Beef cwts.

Salt Pork cwts.

Butter cwts.

Cheese cwts.

Eggs number

Lard cwts.

Clover Seeds cwts.

Flax Seed and Linseed . . . . quarters

Rape quarters

Sheep and Lambs' Wool . . lbs.

Wheat cwts.

Barley cwts.

Oats cwts.

Whcatmeal and Flour .. .. cwts.-

109,653

41,245
430,788

27.137

77,494

5,978,422

1,458,962

196,704

36,870

233,574
1,038,159
147,281
355,306
667,518

35.347

88,566

1,248,946

1,877,813

282,677

168,939

986,708

756,285

266,929,680

530,512

272,626

1,104,578

313.577
173,975,082

24,364,171
7,383,530
6,495,588
5,218,976

179,507
52,226

496,243
85,362

68,870

7,975,935

1,842,947

113,086

18,272

131,358

1,010,688

98,656

272,431
682,075
21,077
105,570
742,404

1,069,390
302,860
189,411

1,054,617

834,844

335,298,240

217,275
226,278

1,434,973

235,578

203,809,018

23,196,713

4,921,362

5,562,959
4,512,391

227,528

55.745
914,170

132,943

74,307

8,731,949
1,913,132

210,784
26,609

237.39s
1,065,705

82,489
292,751
675,312

14,046
109,941
806,753
713,346
228,296

183,155
1,083,717

853,277

364,013,040

136,898

214,071

1,435,414

206, III

209,394,249

20,962,963

7,818,404

7,714.230

3,904,471

VITAL STATISTICS; EMIGRATION; METEOE-
OLOaY; PRICES OF FOOD; PAUPERISM;
BRITISH AYHEAT SOLD ; IMPORTATIONS
OF CORN AND OTHER PRODUCE.

Tlic facts are selected from tlte Beports of tlie Eegistrar-Gexeral ; from
Mr. Glaisher's Meteorological Tables, and Notes on the Weather ; and
from Returns of the Board of Trade.

UNITED KINGD03I.

The population of England, Scotland, and Ireland, at liome, esti-
mated for the middle of the year 1866, is 29,935,404.

EXGLAXD AND WaLES : BlETHS AND DeATHS IN THE FiRST SiX

Months of 1866.

In the First Quarter the hirths in England were 196,737, against
the high number 194,287 in the corresponding period of 1865. The
annual birth-rate for the same period was 3*776 per cent. ; the average
being 3 "644. The birth-rate is alwaj-s higher in the first six months
of the year than in the last ; but the tables for the last ten years
furnish no instance of a rate so high as that which prevailed in that
quarter.

Whilst the births were 196,737, the deaths were in the same time
138,233, and the excess of the former over the latter was 58,504.

The total number of emigrants in the March quarter from ports in
England, Scotland, and. Ireland, was 39,672, of whom about 11,000
Avere of English origin. Irish emigration from the same ports was
nearly double that amount. Of the total number 33,000 emigrants
had chosen the United States for their destination, 6000 the Australian
Colonies. Of the 21,000 Irish emigrants, 19,000 went to the United
States.

Emigration had declined greatly in the first quarter of 1865 ; but
it again increased, and was as active as in the two previous years,
1863-64.

In the Second Quarter the births in England were 192,459 against
173,263 in the same period of 1856. The annual birth-rate of the
quarter was 3*644 per cent, of the population, the average of ten

YOL. II. — S. S. A 3

( XII )

previous springs being 3-620. The deaths were 128,692. The
natural increase of population was, therefore, 63,767.

The total number of emigrants from ports in the United Kingdom
was 80,303, of whom about 19,000 were of English origin ; while
the Scotch were nearly 5000, and the Irish 45,000. About 65,000
were destined to the United States, a number which exceeds the
emigration to the same part in any Jitno quarter in the last twelve
years, with the exception of 1864.

The annual rate of mortality in the first quarter in England was
2-653 per cent. ; the average of ten previous winters being 2-504.
But it is remarkable that this excess above the average was con-
tributed entirely by the large towns ; for in the country districts
the death-rate, 2-252, was actually lower than the average, 2-295.
The annual rate of mortality in the 142 town districts was 2-967,
asiainst the averao'e, 2-680. These results confirm the conclusion
that there were other destructive causes at work besides unfavourable
states of the weather — that epidemic diseases, which commit so much
havoc in towns, were extensively fatal^ and acquired additional
vigour from influences peculiar to the season.

If the map of England were shaded to represent the rates of mor-
tality of the March quarter in the registration districts, the eye,
travelling from the lighter south to the darker north would be
drawn to a spot of portentous darkness on the Mersey ; and the
question would be asked whether cholera, the black death, or other
plague, had been introduced into its bus}'' and populous seaport.
Eever, probably developed or aided by the mild and damp atmos-
phere of the season, and by overcrowding in an increasing popula-
tion, was at work. The annual mortality of the borough of Liver-
pool in the three months was excessive : it rose to 4-593 per cent.
This implies that if this death-rate were maintained for a year, forty-
six persons out of a thousand in the population would die in that
time, or fifteen more than died in Glasgow, its northern rival ; nine-
teen more than in London. The mortality of the city of Manchester,
though far less than that of Liverpool, was also very high ; it was
3-742 per cent., and that of Leeds was hardly less.

The deaths in the quarter that ended on June 30th exceeded the
average of the season. Their number was 128,692, and the mortality,
after taking increase of population into account, exceeded the cus-
tomary rate ; for instead of 2-186 the mortality was at the rate of
2-437 per cent. The spring quarter is usually not only healthier
than the quarter of winter or autumn, but healthier than the whole
round of the year.

( XIII )

The country districts, containing about 9,279,270 inhabitants,
died at the rate of 22 in 1000 in the last spring quarter; a rate
exceeding the average (20) of those districts by 2. The town dis-
tricts, of about 11,903,049 inhabitants, suffered still more, for in
them the rate was over 26 in 1000, whereas their average is 23.

Cities, &c.

Estimated

Population

in the fillddle

of the Year

186G.

London

BristoUCity; ..
Birmingham (Borough)
Liverpool (Borough)
Mancliester (City)
Salford fBorough)
Sheffield (Borough)
Leeds (Borough)
Hull (Borough) ..
Newcastle-on-Tyne

(Borough)
Edinburgh 'City)
Glasgo^y (City) ..
Dublin 'City and somel

suburbs; J

,067,536
163,680
335,798
484,337
358,855
112,904
218,257
228,187
iO!;,2^::

175,128
432,265

318,437

13 Weeks
ending

13 Weeks
endin"

31st March, 31st March,
1866. 1866.

28,407
1,482
3,404
5,078
3,422
1,101
2,212

2,535
1,072

1,299

1,555

4,678

2,306

20,029
1,315
2,565
5,542
3,346
936
1,818
2,095
730

962

1,313

3,378

2,423

Annual Rate to

lOUO living during

the 13 Weeks ending

31st March, 1866.

Births

37-17

36-34
40-69
42-08
38-27
39*14
40-68

44-59
40-89

42-64

35*64
43*44
29-07

Deaths.

26-66
32-25
30-66
45 '93
37*42
33-27
33*43
36-85
27-84

31-58
30-09
31*37
30*54

Mean

Tempera

lure in

13 Weeks

ending

31st Mar.,

1866.

41-2
41-3
41*3
41*9
40-6
40*1
39*6
40-3

38-9

38-4
38-6

41-8

Pwiinfall
in inches

in

13 AVeeks

ending

31st Mar.,

1866.

9*3

[IT

7-0
6-0

8*5
8-5

3*5

8-6
15-6

7-6

Cities, &c.

London

Bristol (City) ,.
Birmingham (Borough)
Liverpool (Borough)
Manchester (City)
Salford (Borough)
Sheffield (Borough) ..
Leeds (Borough)
Hull (Borough) ..
Newcastle-on-Tyne

(Borough)
Edinburgh (City)
Glasgow (City) ..
Dublin (City and some)

suburbs) j

Estimated

Population

in the Middle

of the Year

1866.

:}

,067,536
163,680
335,798
484,337
358,855
112,904
218,257
228,187
105,233
122,277

175,128
432,265

318,437

Births

Deaths

m

m

13 Weeks

13 Weeks

ending

ending

30th June,

30th June,

1866.

1866.

26,776

19,291

1,429

1,039

3,236

2,059

4,802

4,569

3,353

2,701

1,090

856

2,180

1,667

2,591

1,925

1,048

646

1,281

872

1,658

1,179

4,&93

3,533

2,374

2,054

Annual Rate to

1000 living during

the 13 \\'eeks endinj

3uth June, 1866.

irths. Deaths.

35*03
35*04
38-68
39*79
37*50

38*75
40-09

45-57
39*97

42-05

38-00
45-43
29-92

25*29
25*48
24-61
37*86
30-21
30-43
30-66
33-86
24-64

28-62

27-02
32-80

25-89

Eainfall
in inches

in
13 Weeks
ending
30th June 30th June
1866. 1866.

Mean
Tempera-
ture in
13 Weeks
ending

53*0
52-6
52-1

54*1
52-6
51-2
50*2
51*3

49-2
49-9

51*5

7*9
6-4
6-2
5-0
5*8
6*3
6-5

4*7

50-4 4-6

3'7
5*1

( XIV )

METEOROLOGY.

\^D educed from Ohscrvations made at the lioyal Observatory, Greenwicli.']

The weather at the beginning of the year 1866 was stormy, with
gales of wind. The temperature was high for the season. On the
11th day there was an imusual fall of sticking snow, of very groat
specific gravity. The street traffic in London was extremely diffi-
cult; the telegraphic wires were so loaded with snow, and the wind
was so violent, that many poles gave waj^ and telegraphic commu-
nication all roimd London was greatly interrupted. The snow was
of that unusually dense character, that 6 inches in depth produced
Avater to the depth of li in. nearly. A very rapid thaw set in, and
within two or three days all the snow disappeared, and floods
ensued. All the low-lying lands along the valley of the Thames
were imder water. The weather continued changeable throughout
January, with heavy rains and gales of wind. The characteristic
feature of this month was its extraordinary warmth, it being Q\°
above its average value from 50 years' observation. This unusual
temperature continued till 12th February, and the average daily
excess of temperature up to this time was 6°. From the 1 3th day
of February till 15th March the weather was cold, and almost con-
stantly below the average for the season of the year. The average
daily defect of temperature for this period was 2°-9 ; four days of
warm weather followed, each day being about 2° in excess of its
average temperature. This was succeeded by four days of very cold
weather, the defect averaging 4^ daily ; and tlie quarter closed with
eight days whose temperature exceeded their averages by 6°.

The extremely mild weather in January and the first part of
February stimulated vegetation to a very unusual activity for this
season. Hedges and early fruit-trees were budding, and some were
ready to burst into blossom.

The change in the middle of February, from a mild and damp, to
a colder and dryer atmosphere, prevented vegetation advancing too
rapidly, and was otherwise beneficial to agricultural operations, hy
enabling flirmers to do much field and farm work, which in man}-
places, owing to the sodden state of the ground, was in a very
backward state.

At the end of the quarter vegetation was st;fficiently checked by
the cold weather, and the growing crops generally were sufficiently
advanced to be secure from the danger of sudden frosts.

At the beginning of April the weather was cold, the temperature
being below the averag-e to the mean amount of 2'^'4 during the

( XV )

first nine days. The nights were also very cold and rain fell
copiously throughout the first two weeks. On the 10th of the month
a sudden change to heat set in, continuing till the 28th day, during
which time the weather was unusually fine and very hot for the
.season, and but little rain fell. This sudden drying weather much
impeded spring operations, particularly in agriculture, which was
generally in a backward state. The budding of trees was in
general late, but the backward fruit-trees, &c., burst at once into
leaf and blossom. On the 29th of April a cold ungenial period set
in, continuing to the 1st of June, with only an occasional day of
somewhat warmer character intervening. The mean daily deficiency
of temperature during this time amounted to 3°*1, and at night the
thermometer frequently fell to below 32°.

This weather seriously affected all the crops and ciit off" much of
the blossom from fruit-trees. The growth of wheat, barley, and
oats was much retarded, although on some very rich lands the
cereal crops had in a measure recovered by the end of May. Pasture
land made little or no progress, and rain was much required.

On .Time 2ud the Aveather again changed and became much warmer,
and a mean daily excess over the aveiage temperature occiined to
the amount of 4°'2 till the 11th day. A similar cold period followed,
but on the 21st day the temperature again increased considerably,
and fine weather followed till the end of the quarter, the mean daily
excess of temperature amounting to nearly 5°. By this time the
crops were generally in a pretty favourable condition. Hay-making
had progressed well, though somewhat below the average in quantity.
There were some fears that the wheat crop would be light. Potatoes
were promising, and free from disease.

( XYI )

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( XYIII )

The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, and of Potatoes; also the
AVERAGE Number of Paupers relieved on the last day of each "Week ; and
the Mean Temperature ; in each of the Kine Quarters ending June 30th, ISCG.

Quarters
ending

AVERAGK Pr.ICES.

PAUi'F.nisjr.

Wheat
per
Consols Quarter

(for I in
Money).! England

Meat per lb. at Ijeadenhall

anil Newgate Slarkets

(by the Carcase).

Best

Potatoes

per Ton

at Waterside

Quarterly Average of the
Number of Paupers re-
lieved on the last day of
each week.

Mean
Tempe-
rature at
Green-
wich.

1 1 and
1 Wales.

Beef.

Mutton.

Southwark.

In-door. Out-door.

1864
June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

1865
Mar. 31

June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

1866
Mar. 31

June 30

£.

9ii

89i
89i

89i

9oi
89i
88*

87

86|

s. d.

39 7

42 3
38 5

38 4

40 6

43 3

44 10

45 6

46 6

4ld.-bld.
Mean 556?.

4id.—b^,d.
Mean ^^d.

4M.-7d.
Mean s'id.

4id--7d.
Mean 5£rf.

4|rf.— 6frf.
Mean 5|d.

4id.-7d.
Mean 5fd.

4^.-7^.
Mean s^d.

4id.—b^d.
Mean5|rf.

4^d.-7d.
Mean c,ld.

5^^.-7^.
Mean b^d.

Sid—7d.
Mean 6|(/.

5ld.-7\d.
Mean b^d.

5id.-7id.
Mean b^d.

b^d.—Hd.

Mean 73^.

6Jrf.— 83<f.
Mean -j^d.

sid.-Hd.

Mean bid.

iU.~7ld.
Mean b^d.

5J(/.— 8irf.
Mean "jd.

4CS.— 60s.
Mean 50s.

80s. — 1 20s.
Mean iocs.

80s. — 95 s.
Mean 87s. bd.

85s. — 97s.
Mean 91s.

90s. — 115s.
Mean 102s. bd.

65s. — loos.
Mean 85 s.

60s. — 90s.
Mean 75 s.

55 s.— 90s.
Mean 72s. bd.

60s. — 95 s.
Mean 77s. bd.

12;, 717 ' 785,8:5,
115.698 739. 34T

128,322 ' 771,879

i

142,329 ; 813,371
125,846 1 776,016
117. 172 , 719,589
129,036 725.259

139.546 759,402
123,657 734,139

53-1

59-4

43-7

36-5

56-2

62-5

46*0

41-2

53-0

Quantities of "Wheat, Barley, and Oats, Imported into the United
Kingdom in each of the first Six Months of the Year 1SG6.

1866.

Wheat. 1 Barley.

Oats.

First month

Second month

' Third month (five weeks)

cwts.

1,393.997
2,506,969

1,848,963

cwts.

346,767
452,359

969,046

cwts.

170,435
375,386

669,800

Total in the first quarter

5,749,929

1,768,172

1,215 ,621

Fourth month

Fifth month

Sixth mouth (five weeks) . .

1,425,043
1,926,562
2,536,996

811,389

659,155

716,542

508,998

773,745
981,443

Total in the second quarter . .

5,888,601

2,187,086

2,264,186

( XIX )

QuA^rriTiES of British "Wheat Sold in the Towns from which Returns are
received under the Act of the 27th and 28th Victoria, cap. 87 ; and their
Average Prices ; in each of the first Six Moxths of the Years 1861-66.

QUA^-TITIES Df QXTAETEKS.

1861.

1862.

1863.

1864.

1865.

1866.

quarters.

quarters.

quarters.

quarters.

quarters.

quarters.

First month ..

262,527

220,266

262,923

344,930

300,816

212,713

Second mouth

197,236

242,229

239,882

306,713

298,271

259,999

Third month 1
(five weeks) j

253,620

277,410

281,405

350,974

373,069

331,295

Fourth month..

201,551

173,174

243,552

285,286

261,501

250,159

Fifth month ..

214,432

185,356

267,587

284,601

327,694

250,890

Sixth month
(five weeks) j

220,608

208,042

302,897

333,201

283,528

245,393

Av]

::eage Prices

PEE Quarter.

1861.

1862.

1863.

1864.

1865.

1866.

s. d.

s. d.

.. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s, d.

First month . .

57

61 4

47 5

40 7

38 6

45 10

Second month . .

54 4

60

47 3

40 8

38 3

45 7

Third month ]
(five weeks) ,

38 6

54 3

59 3

45 8

40 I

45 4

Fourth month . .

56 5

58

45 7

40

39 8

i 44 10

Fifth month . .

55

58

46 4

39 2

41

' 46 3

Sixth month "(
(five weeks) j

j

53 5

54 7

46 8

39 8

41 5

j

j 48 3

Average Prices of British Corn per Quarter (imperial measure) as received
from tlie Inspectors and Officers of Excise according to the Act of 27th
and 28th Victoria, cap. 87, in each of the first Twenty-six Weeks of the
Year 1866.

Week ending

Wheat.

Barley.

Oats.

Week ending

■\Mieat.

Barley.

Oats.

s.

d.

S.

d.

S.

d.

s.

d.

s. d.

s. d.

January 6 ..

46

3

32

9

23

6

April 7 , .

44

9

37 2

24 6

January 13 ..

46

I

32

6

22

8

April 14 ..

44

5

37

24 2

January 20..

45

7

32

10

22

10

April 21 ..

44

9

37 2

24 8

January 27..

45

6

33

I

23

3

April 28 ..

45

5

36 3

24 6

February 3 . .

45

ro

33

23

I

May 5

45

9

36 3

25

February 10

45

5

33

6

23

6

May 12

45

9

36 4

24 10

Febniary 17

45

9

33

9

23

May 19

46

I

36 2

25 2

February 24

45

5

34

8

23

10

May 26

47

4

36 6

25 4

IMarch 3

45

7

34

II

23

5

June 2

47

5

35 4

25 11

March 10 ..

45

4

35

7

23

ir

June 9

47

I

35 9

25 8

March 17 ..

45

6

35

10

23

10

June 16

47

4

36

25 9

March 24 ,.

45

->
3

36

6

24

I

June 23

48

5

34 4

26 7

March 31 ..

44

II

36

9

23

II

June 30 ..

51

34

26

Average price in First Quarter of the Year
Average price in Second Quarter of the Year
VOL. II. — S. S.

AVheat.

Barley.

Oats.

s. d.

•?. '-'.

s. d.

45 7 .

46 7 •

• 34 3
. 36

A 4

23 5

25 3

C XX )

Notwitlistanding the lowncss of quotations, the arrivals of foreign
wheat in this country during the first half of 1866 were 11,508,676
cwts., being 55 per cent, over those of the corresponding half of
1865, and 15 per cent, over 1864. The chief increase was from
France and Iiussia, bnt there was likewise a considerable augmen-
tation from miscellaneous sources — ^that is to say, from the various
places that are individually unimportant, and figure under the general
head of " other countries." From the United States, which so
recently as the year before last sent nearly 40 per cent of our entire
foreign supply, the proportion in the first six months of 1866 was
only 3 per cent. Eussia sent 32 per cent. ; France, 23 per cent. ;
Pmssia, 15 per cent.; Mecklenburg, 3 per cent. ; the Hanse-Towns,
3 per cent. ; Turkey, 2 per cent. ; Denmark, 1 per cent. ; Schleswig-
Holstein, 1 per cent. ; Egypt and British Korth America, each merely
a few hundredweights, and other countries 17 per cent. Of flour
the importations were 3,134,484 cwts., being double those of the
same period of 1865, and 11 per cent, over those of 1864; and in
this case also France showed the chief increase, the quantity thence
having been 87 -per cent, of the whole, the United States having
contributed only 5 per cent. Of other kinds of grain the arrivals
were mostly large, especially of Indian corn, of which we received
three times as much as in 1865, and nearly six times as much
as in 1864. Beans are the only grain that shows any material
falling off, the importation of these having been only of about half
the extent of those of 1864 and 1865. Oats show an increase of 13
per cent., and peas 150 per cent.

t Grain, Flour, Potatoks, Living Animals, Cheese, Guano, Imported
in the First Six Months of 1864-5-6.

"Wheat cwts.

Barley , ,

Oats ,,

"Wheatmeal and Flour .. .. ,,

Potatoes , ,

Oxen, Bulls, and Cows .. number

Calves , ,

Sheep and Lambs , ,

S\7iue and Hogs , ,

Cheese cwts.

Guano : — From Peru tons

From other countries , ,
Total Guano . . ... , ,

1864.

1865.

1866.

10,047,102
2,448,611
1,769,726

2,774,751
235,334

47,966

15,928
129,350

18,802
234,176

40,957
7,671

48,628

7,462,268
4, 161,894
3,081 ,990

1,562,375

411,789

74,392

18,785
250,212

38,706
240,503

92,988

13,255

106,243

11,508,676

3,954,929

3,490,490

3,134,484

216,210

72,812

9,122

411,729

29,873

190,409

59,469

12,883
72,352

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

I. — On Middle-Class Education, having reference to the Improve-
ment of the Education of those ivho depend upon the Cultivation
of the Soil for their Supjwrt. By E. Vallentixe.

Prize Essay".

Strictly speaking tlie main question is, How the rising genera-
tion of farmers is to be educated in a suitable manner for their
future profession and position in society, at such a cost of time
and means as can be afforded.

I have found it most difficult to come to any practical con-
clusion on this important question, although aided by many ex-
pressions of public opinion, also by extensive reading and cor-
respondence on the subject of education generally.

It is now fully admitted on all hands that the rural or National
Schools are not suited to the requirements of farmers' sons. On
the other hand, the leading public schools are too classical,
and costly in both time and money, for farmers' sons, who must
generally have finished their schooling when other pupils are
only advancing towards the completion of their education at
the Universities. There are doubtless in some neighbourhoods
good private schools, well adapted to the demands of farmers ;
but these are rather the exception than the rule. If then, on the
whole, the schools at present in existence are not sufficient and
cannot be made so, there is no alternative but to erect new schools,
Avhich ought to be under such direction and inspection as would
be a guarantee for a thorough system of efficient teaching in those
studies which are essential to the future farmer. Then how are
these to be started, and how many would probably be required ?
j\Ir. Brereton and some others recommend county schools ; others
advocate professional education at agricultural colleges. The
new schools would, at all events, be chiefly boarding-schools, and
consequently rather more costly than local schools situated within
walking distance of the pupils' homes. Such schools, if efficiently
conducted, could hardly charge less than oO/. a year, a sum

VOL. II. — S. S. B

2 Middle-Class Education.

which few farmers who occupy under 150 acres could afford to
pay.

According to the Census Tables, there are about 40,000
farmers in England occupying above 150 acres of land each. It
is with the education of their sons that we are chiefly concerned.
In order to form some conception of the annual number of deaths
amongst a given number of farmers, I have taken a hundred
farms for comparison, and find that in 20 years there have been
about 63 deaths out of 100 farmers. At this rate, on 40,000
farms, 1200 young farmers would be required annually to fill up
the death vacancies. If these calculations be near enough for
our purpose, and schooling occupy, say, three years, 3600 would
be in training. I think that on an average two farmers have
three sons, which would give 5400 pupils, rather than 3600 ;
and agricultural schools, if conducted on a broad basis, might
educate all these lads for their future callings, though there
would not be farms for them all. Still, for many reasons, I anti-
cipate no such result, and reckon only on much smaller numbers.
A great many farmers would not at present so far appreciate a
distant boarding-school as to send their sons to it. Some could
scarcely afford it ; others who live near to towns would prefer to
send their sons to the best schools within easy reach. I am well
assured that a very large number of farmers would avail them-
selves of good schools for their sons when once fairly started ;
many would also assist in starting them. On the other hand,
however, many would not assist in any way, being uneducated
themselves, and therefore prejudiced and apathetic, or at least
unable duly to appreciate the value of education. Many towns,
and even some villages, have already very good schools for the
middle-classes, and some of these have a special leaning towards
asfricultural trainina;. These would continue to educate a good
many farmers' sons, although new agricultural schools were
started in every county to-morrow. Reasoning, therefore, upon
the best evidence which presents itself, I think that ior some years
at all events not more than 2000 scholars would be found to attend
any schools established upon the principle of being self-sup-
porting.

■ As a matter of course, day-scholars, as well as boarders, of
all ages, might be admitted to the schools. For young men of
from sixteen to even twenty years of age, who may have left
school without having had an opportunity of learning land-sur-
veying, natural philosophy, and chemistry, a year or two spent
at these district schools would be of great value, more especially as
at that age the value of education would be deeply felt. The
sons of townspeople might also avail themselves of county schools,
and there obtain a good general education by selecting those

Middle- Class Education. 3

branches wliicli alike suit all classes and professions, and re-
jecting such as may be exclusively appropriate for farmers.
Classics would then be taught to all who desired it.

I have therefore come to the conclusion that half a dozen large
district schools, scattered throughout England, would meet, for
some time to come, the educational demand of farmers' sons, &c.
These schools, with those already established, would in a few
years be capable of turning out a very large number of young
men, well grounded in a plain general education, and so far intro-
duced to the study of some branches of science connected with
agriculture that they could pursue them after leaving school. The
necessary funds might be raised by the joint exeitions of land-
owners, farmers, and others, the landowners helping to build the
schools, and the farmers supporting them, when built, by sending
their sons to them. If this be too much to expect, Joint-Stock
Companies, or one Joint-Stock Company, might be formed, with
shares of not more than 10/. each, for building first one school and
then another, according to the means available, and the demand
for accommodation. Those districts which contributed the most
should naturally have the first schools. By concerted action
some preliminary expenses might be diminished, and a broader
basis of action adopted.

Both in the South-east and the South-west England appears to
be already fairly provided in these respects. There are the
schools of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, and Surrey, besides Hurst-
pierpoint, in Sussex ; in the West, Cirencester College, and in
the East, the Suffolk Memorial College. That every farmer may
have a school within easy reach, one school in Hertfordshire, one
in Northamptonshire, and one in each of the counties of Wor-
cester, Lincoln, Derby, and York, might be provided at once,
whatever expansion the system might attain hereafter.

Each school ought to have from ten to twenty acres of land
attached to it as a playground and for other purposes. Ten thou-
sand pounds would be sufficient to start each school, capable of
containing 200 pupils, at first, and of receiving further additions,
if required, at a moderate outlay. Buildings of a highly orna-
mental character are costly both to erect and to keep up, and are
by no means necessary. The internal arrangements should be
those of a school rather than a college, because professorial
teaching is not suited for boys of thirteen, who have only been
moderately grounded beforehand. They require the more usual
method of question and answer. Too much has generally been
attempted ; a curriculum of studies which is either too high or
too extensive does harm. Boys should not try to run before
they can walk ; they only get bewildered if they are ex-
pected to attend half a dozen lectures a dav, and prepare as many

B 2

4 Middle-Class Education.

subjects for examination. Even at the Universities Professors
are not the onh", or the most important teachers. Without pre-
vious grounding in the subjects by the aid of tutors, and of ex-
pensive private tutors, their lectures would be of little use even to
University students.

Some people set up a very high standard indeed for farmers'
sons — a wide, very wide range of studies, which, if all thoroughly
mastered, would produce a host of Admirable Crichtons. I am
not quite so sanguine as some in this respect. I do not see the
use oi j)f'ofessorial instruction for the great bulk of farmers' sons,
Avho cannot be sufficiently prepared for such a system. Neither
would I send a youth to an agricultural boarding-school until
he had mastered the elements of a common English education.
No one should attempt to learn mathematics, chemistry, and
geology until he can spell, at least moderately well, and under-
stand fractions.

Being a practical farmer, I may state without presumption
what branches of study I have found most useful to myself, in
addition to a plain English education : these are, chemistry,
land-surveying, all kinds of measuring, the principles of geology,
an acquaintance with the poAver, properties, and use of the
steam-engine, and other machines. Some knowledge of medi-
cine, and the treatment of domestic animals, is also very useful.
IMathematios ought to be taught at school as the best kind of
mental discipline, algebra and logarithms being specially in-
cluded ; plane geometry should be learnt, as being the theory of
w hich all practical rules followed in measuring of all kinds are the
application. Land-surveying may be learned by much practice
without mathematics, but In a much less time loith mathematics.
Every farmer ought to know how to measure a field quickly and
correctly, that he may be quite at home in calculating the
progress and extent of every operation going on, almost daily,
on his farm. I do not mean that the chain should be often in
use, but that the correct lengths of the various fields being known,
a mere stepping across any piece of ploughing, drilling, hoeing,
reaping, or manuring may enable you to cast up in your mind,
Avithin a trifle, the amount of work done. VVhen a farmer can
measure and calculate with readiness and accuracy, there is no
difficulty in carrying out any ordinary experiment In manures, or
in calculating the weight of a root-crop, by merely measuring
some rows or pieces, and ascertaining the produce by measured
cart-loads of known weight. Such experiments as these may
be carried out near enough for general purposes with little
trouble or expense. I have thus carried out about forty such
in a year with scarcely any expense.

Chemistry is also of frequent use even for those who are not

Middle^ Class Education. 5

capable of making an exact analysis ; it affords many good
tests of the value of manures, soils, »Scc. It points out the
composition of everything to those who can understand the
meaning of chemical terms; enables a man to judge what his
land may want without going to the doctor, and tells him
whether the proper medicine be on the farm or not. For in-
stance, land may require lime ; but if good marl or chalk can
be found free of cost and near at hand, either one of these may
generally take the place of lime. Chemistry tends to open the
eyes and enlarge the understanding ; it awakens inquiry and
reflection — weighs, ponders, and suggests what is useful to be
known. It is never entirely learned, and therefore has a never-
failing interest.

In the scientific teaching of an agricultural school. Natural
Philosophy in general, and Chemistry in particular, should have
prominence ; for although boys, as boys, might not make much
advance at school, the groundwork would be laid for further
improvement.

Geology, which has an intimate connexion wdth the che-
mistry of soils, should be taught to some extent in agricultural
schools, but not professorially or much in detail. It is always
a highly interesting supplement to a general education ; but I
think it a Avaste of time for boys of average attainments to
learn the technical names of the fossils belonging to the various
strata. Nor is it worth while to enter into speculative theories
as to whether Adam and the Alps were created within some
millions of years of one another. There are faults and slips in
geological reasoning as well as in the natural phenomena to be
dealt with, so that it is not easy to account for the half dozen
different kinds of soil frequentlv found in the same field.

Botany is also a very interesting study, and useful to gardeners,
or to the adventurous farmer who aspires to introducing some new
plant or some new variety of plants, &c. If, however, there are
coarse grasses in a field which nothing will eat, they should be
destroyed without even so much as inquiring their names. Prac-
tical farming shows various ways of doing this.

Few practical farmers occupy much time with botany.

" The primrose by the river's brim,
A simple primrose is to him,
And it is nothing more."

And perhaps it is as well that it is so ; for the life of a man is
too short for him to learn everything ; and it is better to learn
what is undoubtedly useful than what may onlv happen to be so.
If there is scarcely time for more, let the groundwork of a good
general education be secured, with the rudiments of those sciences
which have the most intimate connexion with the special profession
to be followed.

6 Middle-Class Education.

A good education may be limited in its range, and yet be
good of its kind. A good English education should of course
include grammar, correct spelling, geography ; also somewhat
of ancient and modern history ; some say entirely modern history ;
but this is a mistake. History, it is said, repeats itself ; so that
an insight into the leading events and causes in times long past
may throw some light upon the present, and even the future.
But we cannot cast as impartial an eye on modern, as on ancient
history ; modern politics would certainly be introduced to some
extent ; and it would scarcely do to discuss a living Prime
Minister's principles in a boys' school.

A boy should be able to read a page of a good author without
stumbling, sniffling, or singing ; to write a page correctly from
dictation ; to state and calculate without hesitation or mistake any
ordinary question in arithmetic. He should know the principles
of book-keeping, and the changes between the Dr. and Cr. side
which so frequently occur in the entries which relate to various
articles in a set of books.

In all pursuits a knowledge of principles is everythinrj ; and
the mere unintelligent copying of printed forms is almost value-
less. A youth intended to be a farmer should decidedly be kept
to his arithmetic and mathematics as a task until he can measure
a field, or any other ordinary surface or solid. It may be said
that if a knowledge of pure mathematics be obtained, it may
be applied when a man pleases. To this I would say, he may
probably never please to practise after leaving school unless he
practised at it. Moreover, a distinction between theory and
practice exists everywhere, and few University men — who have
pursued pure mathematics to a mvich greater length than boys
could be expected to do — are able to survey land ; nor could
they keep the field-book, without practice, where any extent had
to be surveyed.

Drawing might be practised in connexion with mathematics,
and the study of machinery. The drawing of a steam-engine,
for instance, on a larger or smaller scale than the design given
to work from, is a very good exercise. After practice of this
kind, a plain examination of an engine when in rest and at work,
with a teacher to describe everything, soon makes any one
acquainted with the whole construction, working, and use of the
various parts.

It is well for a young farmer to comprehend the simple me-
chanical powers, such as the lever, screw, &c., but not to devote
much of his time to such subjects as suit the professional
engineer — the construction of docks, sea-walls, embankments for
rivers, reservoirs, canals, railway levelling, the construction of
railways or roads, the building of bridges, c^c.

With respect to Classics being taught or not at Agricultural

Middle-Class Education. 7

Schools, I would say, by all means let tliem be taught, if they
can be made supplementary to more necessary subjects Avhich
must be thoroughly mastered. I scarcely think, however, that
the young farmer will find much leisure for acquiring Classics,
either during his school-days or in after life.

The knowledge of other languages gives a clue to Eng-
lish, points out the roots of words, and shows how words and
sentences are formed, besides affording a great deal of actual
historical information and mental training. Still, the great
bulk of mankind must be satisfied with merely knowing that
words have certain meanings, without being able to trace the
connexion of these meanings or even to refer the word to its
primary root. Most men have forgotten much more than they
remember, and those who know the most have much more to
learn than all they do know. Seeing, therefore, that all know-
ledge is comparative, but never complete, I advocate selection of
those studies which it is most material for the farmer to learn,
rather than aiming at high accomplishments which the bulk can
never acquire, and in the pursuit of which much valuable time
will be spent which could be turned to better account.

With such a system of education as I have suggested, three
masters, with some assistants, would be able to conduct a school
of two or three hundred boys.

A debtor and creditor account of such a school, according to
my calculations, should be nearly as follows : —

Scliool.
Dr. £.

To Building, &c., and Preliminary Expenses 8,000

To Cliapel, if required 1,000

Land 1,000

£10,000

Ax>-rAL Statement.
School.

De.

To Board

Washing, &c., fori

200 Scholars, at 201. each \
To Educational Staff, Servants, i
&c (

To Balance available for In--j
tercst on Building Fund, I
after providing for the Eepair |
of the Buildings J

£.

-tooo

1000
1000

£6000

Cr. £.

Bv School Fees from 200 hoys,) ^^^^
\^t30?.each -^^Z 6000

£6000

Such a statement cannot be taken as actually correct. JNIost

8 Middle- Class Education.

people would say, " It is too good to be true." At all events, it
is an approximation Avliicli we need not be far from realising
if the building be not too pretentious and scholars can be
found at once.

This much, at least, may be said, that unless 300 scholars
are forthcoming for half-a-dozen district schools, it would be
altogether hopeless to expect that 40 county schools could
find the requisite support for an expensive staff of efficient
teachers. The Suffolk School contemplates taking children of
nine years of age. Could the attendance of scholars of this age
and upwards to seventeen be secured, my calculations and antici-
pations would be far exceeded. But 1 certainly do not expect
that parents in general will send boys of nine years of age to a
large and distant boarding-school. On the score of expense alone
few would do so to self-supporting schools. Head-masters would
not teach children their jji-imers. Besides, the health and training
of the heart of a child would be better attended to at home.
The education of the heart — the moral training of youth — is a
parent's duty and pleasure, if he is what a parent ought to be.
At school the precepts of religion may be taught ; but — much
more than precepts — mere precepts, and reading of Scripture,
are acquired at home. Then who can take the place of a parent
who feels the immortal responsibility of his trust ? "A little
learning may be a dangerous thing," when not accompanied by
moral training ; but more learning under such circumstances
would be still more dangerous. The proverb is true that "know-
ledge is power," but power may be used for evil just as much as
for good. It were better that the child who writes obscene words
upon a wall had never learned to write at all, if he can put his
learning to no better use. Knowledge may give skill in forgery,
and many other such misapplications of skill. Without the
restraints which moral principles impose, a man may be an
educated demon, — the more intellectual, the more dangerous to
all around him.

Since I hold that children up to twelve or thirteen years of
age are generally best left under their parents' daily care, I think
it desirable that the present Rural Schools should so far extend
their elementary teaching as to include grammar and a little
plane geometry. These schools must, for a long time to come,
be the chief preparatory schools for either county or district
seminaries, and it is highly important that they should provide
a satisfactory grounding. Now that, under the Revised Code,
teachers are paid according to the results of the examination of
scholars, there is no longer reason to fear that the poorer children
might be neglected if farmers' sons were taught in advanced
classes, defraying, of course, the whole cost of their education.

Middle- Class Education. 9

If this object induced their parents to unite in taking a more
active interest in such schools, it might lead to their improve-
ment. So long as farmers of small occupations are not able or
inclined to send their children to any other than parochial schools
some change in the present system is urgently required.

The rural parochial schools in Scotland afford an education
for all classes who attend them of a very liberal character. The
school-fees, it appears, are also very moderate, running from 21.
to 5/. a year for day-scholars. In many such schools farmers'
sons have the opportunity of obtaining a good general education,
with Classics, French, or German, — in short, everything they
can require but chemistry, and even this has in some cases been
attempted. It is not likely, however, that chemistry will ever
be well taught in any parochial schools, since much deeper
knowledge is required of the teacher than an ordinary school-
master can ever acquire. Moreover, chemistry cannot well be
taught to large classes, at all events, of boys, who require at first
such special instruction and attention as can be paid only to
a few at a time ; though youths who had already received a
grounding in chemistry might undoubtedly profit by attending
chemical classes, well taught by a professional chemist, the ex-
pense of which could only be afforded by the resources of a large
educational establishment. For this, amongst other reasons,
large district schools are required for the support of professional
teachers.

I am at a loss to assign any reason for the general advanced
state of education in Scotland, other than the high appreciation
in which it is held by parents who have been pretty well edu-
cated themselves.*

Success in the education of the middle-classes in their early
years depends as much upon the aid and encouragement afforded
by parents, as upon the efforts of the regularly-appointed school-
master. If this be the case, it is evident that during the brief
period of one generation no great educational stride can be
made.

In the 'North British Agriculturist' newspaper may be found
frequent reports of meetings of farmers' clubs, &c., in all parts
of Scotland, at which practical as well as scientific matters are
very ably discussed. The numbers who take part in these dis-
cussions show how well informed the generality of Scotch farmers
are, and how eagerly they seize any opportunity for advancing in
useful knowledge. Those who do not read Scotch papers cannot
but have observed that Scotch bailiffs and gardeners are very

* This only removes the difficulty a generation back. The true solution of this
striking phenomenon will probably be found in several peculiarities in the consti-
tution of the Scotch Kirk.— P. H. F.

10 Middle-Class Education.

numerous in England, and that most of them are proficient in
writing and arithmetic. Yet these are not so well educated as
the farmers in Scotland, The young Scotchman often looks
rather dull at first sight, so as to lead a stranger to suppose he
can neither read nor write ; but if he be set down to write out an
account, or such like, his hand goes like a little engine, and
shows at once that both schoolmaster and scholar have been
at work. In England the reverse is frequently found. A smart-
looking youth discourses very fairly — very fully, perhaps, so as to
create an impression that he is well educated, and of an observing
turn of mind, which impression may last till something in writing
is required, and then he will be utterly at fault, or perform his
task in a bad, shaky manner ; showing at once that the school-
master had been out of the way, and that he is much wanted.

Another instance of the active influence which education has
exercised on the Scotch farmers may be found in the career of
the Highland Agricultural Societv, which was constituted more
than half a century before the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, and throughout its course has been more generally
supported by farmers than the English Society. This I take to
be a sign of a defect in English education, which leads to pre-
judice as well as ignorance. There ought to be more membei's —
far more — belonging to the Royal Agricultural Society. The
Society educates by its Journal, its Shows, 6cc. Every farmer of
100 to 200 acres ought to belong to a Society which endeavours
to diffuse — and to a great extent does diffuse — a great deal of useful
agricultural information amongst its members. Some members,
it is true, complain that the Journal is not so instructive as it
might and ought to be. To those we would suggest that they
should make some personal efforts to contribute such articles as
appear to be required. Were the members of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society more numerous, it might be advantageous to
publish the Journal quarterly with more short articles. There
Avill undoubtedly be many more contributors by-and-by, if agri-
cultural schools are started and properly managed.

The Agricultural Society of Scotland has very recently been
taking steps for promoting agricultural education, of which the
following are the chief points : —

" The examination of candidates of not less than eighteen
years of age, for a certificate of proficiency in farm accounts,
mensuration, and a good knowledge of practical agriculture ;
also a general acquaintance with the elements of botany, chemistry,
and natural history."

" That candidates who possess the certificate, and have passed
their twenty-first year, should receive a diploma, if found on a
final examination to possess a thorough knowledge of the theory

Middle- Class Education. 11

and practice of agriculture, of mechanics, and mensuration ; of
the physiology and treatment of domestic animals, and of the
application of botany, chemistry, and natural history to agri-
culture."

If such be the test of merit, I would say that any one who could
take in and hold such a large and varied amount of knowledge
would be meritorious indeed, and might well exclaim, like the
accomplished young lady after completing her education, that —

" The more she thought the more the wonder grew,
That one small head could carry all it knew."

At the same time, when it is taken into account that young
men in Scotland have special opportunities for obtaining a
liberal education at a small cost, which may be prolonged to
twenty-one years of age, there need be no fear of some being forth-
coming capable of passing a satisfactory examination on many
branches of study, and showing such a proficiency as may be
deemed sufficient, if the examiners do not exact too much from
them.

It appears that the Agricultural Society of Scotland obtained
an extra charter in 1856, which enabled it to confer degrees
upon agricultural students.

The subjects for examination, as at first proposed, were more
numerous than those named by the new Board of Examination.
Very few candidates have hitherto presented themselves at these
examinations, either because they were too comprehensive, or
else because the honours to be conferred were not sufficiently
attractive. The new system may perhaps meet with greater
success, though I much doubt whether well-educated young men
of twenty-one years of age Avill travel long distances from
home to be examined by a central board, which may not
award a diploma, and thus do positive injury to the prospects
of some candidates.

I should have the same misgivings as to the result if the
Royal Agricultural Society were to offer to examine men on
their agricultural education. This is a very different thing from
testing by the examination at the end of a period of study the
proficiency obtained by the scholars from a definite course of
instruction. That is an almost necessary guarantee that teachers
have really done what they professed to do. The Scotch system,
however, presumes a large general acquaintance with practical
agriculture.

The system of schools which I have proposed in this Essay
does not refer to the learning of practical agriculture at all,
because well-digested popular opinion coincides with my own,
that the acquirement of a good theoretical education only is all

12 Middle-Class Education.

that can be expected up to tliat age, when the great majority of
those intended lor farmers must leave school.

Cirencester College is a very good establishment for com-
bining education with instruction in practical agiiculture. It is,
however, more suited to the wants and means of those who can
afford to prolong their school-days, than to the sons of ordinary
farmers.

Having had good opportunities of becoming acquainted with
the history and working of Cirencester College, I may be allowed
to say that the previous education of a great many of the pupils
before entering the College was not, by any means, good enough
to enable them to profit, to any great extent, by the advanced
lectures in chemistry, botany, geology, veterinary science, civil
engineering, &c., and other means of training there placed at
their service. This was certainly the case during a long period,
and there is no reason to suppose that the educational standard
of the pupils lately entered differs materially from that of their
predecessors.

Most of the pupils at Cirencester have been gentlemen's sons,
and as such have had superior opportunities for obtaining a good
groundwork of education. If the collegiate system of teaching
has not suited them, how can we expect that it will prove as
useful for farmers' sons as that of less pretentious schools ? No-
where in England can a young man with a good English educa-
tion learn so much of the science and practice of agriculture
combined as at Cirencester ; but if he be deficient in this
respect, the mode of teaching, chiefly by lectures, does not suit
him, and both time and money are nearly thrown away. A
practice, it appears, has lately sprung up, of having lectures on a
great variety of practical agricultural subjects, which are, no
doubt, well intended, and may do some good in certain instances.
But many question the policy of lecturing a body of inexpe-
rienced youths on controverted points, of either theory or practice.
The discussion of extreme thin seeding, and the comparative
merits of particular breeds of stock, are subjects little adapted
to a mere learner of the A B C of farming.

The character of the College has always been more or less
measured by the supposed success or otherwise of the farm, and
of the teaching connected therewith. When it was first started
many farmers took up the notion that the College was in-
tended to teach them how little they knew, or, at least, that the
pupils would there hear much that reflected upon them. The
method of teaching as pursued at first did not quite dispel
prejudice against the College, neither has it been entirely
removed up to the present time. A farm is an object which
cannot be hidden or put to one side, when everything does not

Middle-Class Education. 13

please the public eye ; therefore, when the Colleg-e was first
started, the farm had to be put to rights by the removal of old
fences, the erection of new fences, the making of roads, the
cleaning of the land ; and, in addition, the erecting of new
farm buildings. I did not happen to see the College in its very
earliest stage, but I can easily judge that we ought to make
great allowances for some disorder during the transition state,
though these points were undoubtedly seized upon as an evidence
of failure by those who considered their old practices more mone^j-
vfiaMnrj than the proceedings of the College.

There was also a well-meant attempt at familiarising students
with the different breeds of cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs, bv
keeping them upon the farm. Field -experiments were also
undertaken. These practices caused a very heavv expense during
the first few years of the College career, which has told against
it in every respect up to the present day.

It is but fair to state these matters, and to remember that the
Cirencester College was like a pioneer in a new country where
feAv find a good path to guide them, jVIoreover many people
are not aware of the enormous cost which is incurred in convert-
ing a farm out of order into a model one. The farms of many*
noblemen, which are thought very highly of for their neatness of
appearance and the fulness of their crops, have cost as much money
in improvements as the College Farm, if not more. In the one
case, the public know nothing of the quiet outlay ; whilst, in the
other, rumours of deljt get abroad, which, in relation to man
or institution, must always be damaging. After all, I think the
College with its farm is well adapted for affording a finished
agricultural education to the higher classes ; and if it were well
supported by landed proprietors for the education of their sons
who would have to do with land in after life, it might surely
answer the purpose of the directors to have some classical pro-
fessors attached to the educational staff.

A farm connected with a college or school need not necessarily
be experimental. There are so many people with ample means
and time to try any new plants, systems of cultivation, manuring,
&c,, that it is altogether out of the question to attempt to try
every novelty on one farm. There are many professed botanists
and geologists in the kingdom, many botanic gardens and
private collections of plants, &c. ; by these ineans every new
plant may be tried and tested before the farmer need trouble
himself about them. Gentlemen who can afford themselves
a long college career and the aid of special tutors, mav learn
a great deal as a source of amusement, or to obtain distinction
in examinations, which the farmer's son cannot aspire to ; but I
must again protest against the cram-svstem which tries to put

14 Middle-Class Education.

science upon science into a boy's head until it is utterly be-
wildered. After all, I have no doubt that many students at
Cirencester have learned much before leaving the College, but
many more might have profited, and to a greater extent, if
before they were entered they had learned hoio to learn. The
establishment has not hitherto been successful in a financial
point of view, for reasons, some of which have been alluded to.
The teaching, however, may be just as good as if the College
were paying a large dividend, although the result would not
conduce to the establishment of institutions of a similar kind
from which shareholders, as a rule, would expect some interest
for their money.

Where farms are attached to schools or colleges they should be
managed by a rent-paying farmer, fanning in the same manner
as others who must live by their farms. I can scarcely see how
any mode of farming can be called good unless it pays, let the
crops or stock be what they may.

It is a mistake to suppose that young men can learn the prac-
tice of farming by a few minutes' work now and then, or that
they can, under any circumstances, learn the practice of inarket-
«ng on a school-farm. Instead of working-pupils being of any
actual use, they are more frequently a very great hinderance to
the regularity of the various operations of a farm which are being
carried on by the regular labourers.

The Glasnevin Training School in Ireland, where the boys
work a good deal, is not nearly self-supporting, notwithstanding
that the labour of the pupils is valued at from 150Z. to 200/. a
year. The crops have generally been very good ; still the whole
concern does not pay.

Theie is at Limerick a branch Model Farm in connexion with
Glasnevin, where all the pupils receive education almost gratis,
some entirely so. There are buildings enough for 60 resident
pupils. So late as January, 1865, there were only 7 in-door
pupils, although gratuitous education and board would be
afforded by the National Board of Ireland for 11 pupils! Such
a state of affairs as this affords but little encouragement to the
establishment of more such schools, in some districts at least.
Farming in Ireland for some years past has been rather flat, so
that some farmers could not spare the labour of a son of 17 years of
age, even though he might be boarded and educated for nothing !

Glasnevin School and its branches have, however, done a great
deal of good to those who have attended them for some time, and
probably, in a national point of view, the outlay incurred in
sending out good practical farmers and land-stewards will be
much more than repaid by improved farming and the force of
example upon others.

Middle-Class Education. 15

There are many persons who say it is altogether Avrong to aim
at making a school-farm pay ; that it should be a place whei-e
the best methods of agriculture are in practice, and where the
best class of stock is kept, but that profit should be kept entirely
out of sight. To my mind, this is like leaving out the part of
Hamlet, and I think that most farmers agree with me. There is
certainly some ground for saying that good methods of cultiva-
tion may be taught to an apprentice taking part in them,
although his part of the labour is a loss. It might be of
service to him to build a corn-stack which would not stand
a day, or if it did, might require so much labour in propping
that the cost would have been less if the apprentice had been
idle. Still I cannot see how the best farming — the so-called
best farming — should cause a loss, if the pupils were drilled
thoroughly and well, and under such supervision as ordinary
labourers are. Here, however, lies the difficulty. Farmers' sons
will not bear the same kind of ruling as those who must live
entirely by their labour ; and without good discipline and good
order there can be no profit either on a farm or elsewhere.

In Huntingdonshire nearly 20 years ago an agricultural
school with some land attached to it, was started for those
intending to become farmers. A good English education was
taught, with a little mathematics, and practical land-surveying.
By the aid of local subscriptions the school Avent on fairly for a
time, but not being self-supporting it fell off, and when 1 last
heard of it, was nearly extinct. The school-fees were too low in
the first instance, and had to be raised afterwards ; this is in
itself a great obstacle to ultimate success. In this instance
theorv combined with practice did not succeed.

In Herefordshire, some years ago, a gentleman farmer boarded,
lodged, and educated a number of boys, who paid for these
advantages by merel}- working upon the farm. When started
this plan did not pay, but it was supposed it might do so after
a time. This expectation has not, however, been realised.

1 do not mention these instances of failure in a financial point
of view, for the purpose of condemning the combination of
instruction in agriculture with general education ; but for the
information of persons who, not having heard the results of
attempts already made to unite learning and working, are over-
sanguine of success from such efforts.

To the Rev. J. L. Brereton, Prebendary of Exeter Cathedral,
Devonshire and the adjoining counties are much indebted for
the establishment of a very good school suited to the wants of
farmers' sons and the middle-classes generall}' ; many others
have given substantial support, but ^Ir. Brereton has pulled the

16 3Iiddle- Class Education.

labouring oar. The Devon County School was very nearly self-
supporting in 1864, and is expected to be quite so in 1865.
Mr, Brereton contemplates a school and farm conibined, with
a scale of fees graduated according as the pupil works part
of the day or not. Those who do not work would be charged
45/. a year ; those who work on the farm 7 hours a day, 10/.
a year. This scale aj>j)ears to A'alue the labour of a pupil at
35/. a year; but this is not exactly the right way to state the
matter, as the richer scholars may prefer not to work and
so to some extent help those who are poorer. If this half-time
system could be carried out it would be a very good one ; but
1 rather fear it would not be a self-supporting scheme. Any
gentleman of considerable personal influence, by contributing
l)oth time and money, and thus setting an example, may start
almost any feasible scheme ; but it frequently happens that after
being started, when both the money and the enthusiasm begin to
flag, the scheme also fails, unless at the outset it is based on
sound self-supporting principles which do not require the constant
watchfulness of the first promoter.

Middle-class education is now a subject of general interest,
and those who require education for their families make their
voices heard. I have no doubt whatever but that a small
school for farmers' sons might be started here and there if a
general local move were made in the matter ; but it appears
to me advisable for us to have some uniform system for the
whole country to go by in the first instance, and the Royal
Agricultural Society is by its influence well adapted for pro-
inoting a general scheme. If some few persons were appointed
by the Society to travel for a time to consult with the chief
land-proprietors of every county, and to make the Royal Agri-
cultural Society's ideas on the subject known amongst farmers
and others, abstracts of information might be prepared and duly
considered in Council before a definite prospectus was issued to
the public.

I have a very high opinion of the persevering industry of
farmers generally, but it is useless to contend that they have had
such an education as the middle-classes in towns. The latter have
great advantages in a greater choice of schools, without the
daily expense and trouble of providing a conveyance to take the
children to school, the cost of which, for one or two boys (at the
distance, say only of six miles) is quite equal to the extra expense
of a distant boarding-school. While farmers live on their land
there will always be some drawbacks to the attendance of their
children at the school even of the town nearest at hand. Farmers
are not naturally more obtuse than other classes ; but it is harder

Middle-Class Education. 17

for them to obtain education at a cheap rate, or to find opportuni-
ties for meeting together to discuss matters of common interest,
or attend lectures, «Scc., for intellectual improvement.

Some farmers set less store by education, because they see that
some highly educated men are unsuccessful in business ; or rather,
this affords them a certain excuse for continuing ignorant of book-
learning. Undoubtedly both the educated and the uneducated
fail at times ; it is not, however, the education which is to blame,
but some defect in another quarter, — the want of practical expe-
rience, of sufficient capital, of sufficient attention to business,
expensive habits, want of knowledge of, or attention to the pecu-
liarities of the district. If scientific hobbies are carried to a
great extent to the neglect of that which is undoubtedly prac-
tical and paying ; if an enthusiastic entomologist should run
about catching bees and butterflies half the day, and using the
microscope the other half to see that,

" Bigger flies have little flies

Upon their backs to bite 'em ; . ■

And little flies have lesser flies.
And so ad infinitum^''- — ■

much greater misfortunes than one fly biting another may ensue,
but it is hardly fair to lay them to the charge of education, and
especially of a sound general education.

Upon the whole, whilst admitting the great value of school
learning up to a certain age, I am inclined to think that any one
intending to become a farmer should learn the practical part upon
a farm when sixteen or seventeen, instead of continuing at school
or college till twenty-one or twenty-two years of age, even if the ex-
pense were of no consideration. What theoretical knowledge may
be gained by protracted schooling might be outweighed by loss of
practical experience. One might as soon expect to learn to be a
practical sailor at school as there to learn practical farming.
Education is never of course complete ; both at school and in
after life every one must, to a great extent, educate himself. The
greater part of schooling consists in learning rules, and getting
hold of keys to unlock the stores of knowledge contained in both
books and men, for living teachers are more ready directors than
dead books.

An agricultural pupil, whether learning on his father's, or
any other farm, should keep a daily journal of every operation
which he sees carried out, or even if working elsewhere himself,
should get information and carefully note it down — a register
of the weather, the quantities of seed sown of various kinds,
how the live stock thrive, an estimate of crops, and anything
that can be of any likely service afterwards. The keeping of

VOL. II. — S. S. C

18 Middle-Class Education.

such accounts fixes thing's upon the mind, induces habits of
observation, and keeps the hand and head in some kind of
training. If this appear to some to be only useless trouble, I
can only say, that without it young men may remain for years
upon a farm, and really learn scarcely a single thing ; many
have found out this afterwards and regretted it. Working with
the hands is a very suitable method of learning a good deal of
farming. Unless a learner has a pretty large fortune to start
business with, after serving an apprenticeship, he should do
some work ; if he does not he will never be really practical,
and consequently will just require a larger fortune to enable him
to bear greater losses, or to be satisfied with a smaller profit
than a thoroughly practical man, who had less means to start with.
Besides an idle youth, with a horse to gallop about the country
frequently gets into scrapes, and there is always a risk that Satan
will find mischief for idle hands to do ; he had better work, or
if idle had better walk — a walking-pace is quite fast enough
for getting into scrapes. It is a good plan for farmers to ex-
change sons to serve an apprenticeship.

A farm out of order and in course of being put into order,
is the best in general to learn farming' upon. Some who attempt
to learn how to farm on their own account, by going to highly
cultivated park-farms, and such like, may be at fault when set to
bring a sour, undrained, unlevel, foul farm into a good state of
cultivation.

However, the cultivation of the mind stands first, and I do
sincerely hope that as union is strength, landowners, farmers,
and all others interested, specially and generally, may be able to
start a good set of schools for the future generation of farmers,
who ought to have as much mental training as the members
of other middle-class professions, now so eagerly striving after
scholastic improAemcnt, The subject of education is endless,
therefore without entering into more details I shall conclude Avith
Cowper's lines : —

"To follow foolish precedents, and wink
"With hoth our eyes, is easier than to think ;
AtkI such an age as ours balks no expense,
Except of caution, and of common sense ;
Else such notorious fact, and proof so plain
Would turn our steps into a wiser train."

Burcott Lodge, Felruari/^ 18G5,

( 19 )

II. — Middle - Class Education, icith special reference to our
Grammar Schools. By the Rev. Lewis Evans.

Education is one of the leading questions of the day. To show
what importance the subject has attained, and how gradually
but surely it has risen to this importance, we have only to
review the history of the last thirty years, and direct our atten-
tion to two or three leading facts. The first and most gratifying
is the great increase in the number of educated persons in this
country during that period. The next is the large and rapidly
increasing grants of the public money made for educational
purposes. Last, and not least, the interest excited by the several
Royal Commissions issued to inquire into the existing state of
our most important institutions for the promotion of education.

If we look into these three points in detail, we shall find, with
regard to the first, that, from a recent report of the Registrar-
General, 32"7 per cent, of the male minors v»'ho married in 1841
Avere obliged to sign the register with marhs. This proportion
diminished year by year, till 1862, when the percentage was
23*7. Among women, in 1841, 48'8 per cent, of minors could
not write their names : in 1862 the percentage was only 28*5.
In other words, during twenty years, from 1842 to 1862, the
proportion of men who can write has risen from being only two-
thirds to be three-fourths ; and of women, from being one-half
to be nearly two-thirds : or, we may put it thus, that where four
persons had to " make their mark " then, there are only three
now.

With respect to the second point, it appears that in 1840 the
parliamentary grant for public education amounted to 30,000/. ;
in 1850 it rose to 180,110/.; in 1862 to 774,743/. From the
Report laid before Parliament in 1863 Avith the Estimates, it
appears that the grants for education from the public expenditure,
from 1839 to December, 1862, amounted to 6,710,862/. 14^. lOd.

As to the third point, we may simply remark, that the ' Report '
recently published on the Public Schools of England, has not
only been the universal topic of conversation and discussion,
but there is not a single periodical, possessing even a verv mode-
rate amount of circulation, that has not made it the subject of a
special review.

The subject of education, then, having excited such general
interest, it is a very striking fact that this great educational
development is confined to one class alone, and is mainly, if not
solely, due to the fostering care bestowed on the primary schools.

With regard to the great public institutions of the country, the
benefits of which are manifestly limited to a small class, we

C 2

20 Middle-Class Education.

may fairly say, without any undue disparagement, that the
Report of the Commissioners shows that they have not kept
pace with the general advance of education among the lower
orders. If, however, those for whose benefit they are especially
designed are satisfied with the amount of intellectual and moral
culture there obtainable, the question ceases to be of much prac-
tical importance to those who have neither the desire nor the
means to participate in those advantages. Between these two
extiemes lies the great middle class, composed of men who are
becoming daily more and more sensible of the inefficiency of the
existing means of providing education for their children, and
more alive to the importance of providing such means as shall
enable them to "hold their own" in the great stru^afle of life.

Of this gi'eat middle class (without regard to any other con-
sideration than that of numbers) no section is of as great im-
portance as that which is connected with agriculture ; and for
this large body of persons there are at present no adequate means
of education provided. Let us briefly look at the question in a
practical point of view. One great cause — we may say the vital
cause — of this deficiency has arisen from education not being duly
appreciated by that class. What men have never had, they never
feel the want of. The higher classes, so far as they have reaped
the advantages of a good education, take every care that their
children shall share the same. Those for whom they can and do
legislate they take care to provide in a proportionate degree with
similar advantages. But the middle classes cannot and %vill not
be legislated for ; and in most instances have been hitherto
quite satisfied if the modicum of education which they have
themselves received continue to be doled out to their children.

It is true of course that there is a gradually increasing feeling
among the middle classes that something better should be pro-
vided for their offspring, and that a few noble efforts have been
made in order to attain that end ; but is it not a fact that the
feeling of this deficiency has come upon them from without,
rather than arisen spontaneously within their own body ? This
remark especially applies to the agricultural middle classes. As
a rule, farmers are not "speculative" men. They are hardly,
in the truest sense of the word, " men of business ;" their isolated
lives, and the nature of the subjects which generally occupy
their minds are not conducive to united action either for social
or political objects.

But the education of the agricultural section of the community
cannot be advantageously severed from that of others occupying
the same social position ; let us therefore look to these few
practical points, under which the general subject of middle class
education may be regarded : —

Middle-Class Education. 21

i. The means existing at present for the education of the
middle classes in England.

ii. The means adopted in other countries of Europe for sup-
plying any deficiency.

iii. The schemes that have been started for a similar purpose
in England.

iv. And conclude with a practical suggestion for, at the least,
a partial remedy of the acknowledged evil.

I. As a general rule, our middle classes have been compelled
practically to rest contented with what are called " commercial
schools " — speculations conducted by teachers of very varied
qualifications, but too often the last resource of an ill-educated
man, who had failed in every mercantile pursuit in which he had
previously embarked. This may seem a hard saying, but those
who are best qualified to judge will admit that the statement is
not overdrawn.

II. What methods have been adopted in foreign countries for
providing means of education for the middle classes ? Let us
first take the five great powers of Europe : —

1. In England we may at once confess that nothing has of late
been done.

2. In France we have one most important fact — there is a
Minister of Public Instruction. Moreover, it appears from the
Returns of October, 1863, that there were 82,135 establishments
of primary instruction (being an increase of 16,136 since 1848) ;
out of this number 41,426 were public and free schools, where
subjects adapted to the requirements of the middle classes are
especially taught. During this period (1848-1863) the number
of scholars had increased by nearly a million. The sum voted
in July, 1862, to the Ministry of Public Instruction amounted
to 2,548,178/.

3. In Austria there is no INIinister of Public Instruction ; but,
in 1857, there Avere 442 middle schools (exclusive of militar}-,
national, and superior schools), with 4500 professors and teachers
attached to them, and an attendance of 72,646 scholars. We
may observe by the way that more than two-thirds of the popu-
lation of Austria are engaged in husbandry, the total population,
in 1862, being computed at 35,795,000.

4. In Russia there is a Minister of Public Instruction ; and,
according to his official Report, in 1860, there were in the whole
empire 8937 schools, with 950,002 pupils, giving one pupil to
every seventy-seven inhabitants. The grants from Government
to these schools amount annually to 593,832/. The division of
the schools into " elementary schools," "gymnasia," and " Lycaea,"
seems to correspond with that in Germany. The " subjects,"

22 Middle- Class Education.

"courses of study," and "examinations to be passed," are all
fixed by Government. In these schools the requirements of the
middle classes are amply satisfied.

In Prussia we shall find a very superior order of things.
Here again the agricultural element forms a very large portion
of the population ; out of 18,500,000 of inhabitants, about
8,500,000 being employed in agriculture as their sole or chief
occupation.

There is not only a Minister of Public Instruction, but also
a Minister of Agriculture.

The educational system is the most complete in Europe ;
education is compulsory on all classes from the ages of six to
fourteen. Every parent being compelled to give satisfactory
proof that, if his child does not attend one of the state schools,
he is receiving a proper education either at home or in some
private seminary.

In every province the public schools are under the superin-
tendence of a board of education appointed by Government.

In 1861, according to the official returns, there were 23,859
Protestants, and 9895 Roman Catholic elementary schools.

The number of children between six and fourteen amounted
to more than 3,500,000, and of these nearly 3,000,000 attended
the public schools. In the same year there were gymnasia, or
higher schools, with 39,737 pupils, and 1823 professors and
teachers.

In all these schools, the fees for education are exceedingly
moderate, and the children of all who are unable to pay these,
are instructed gratuitously at the expense of the State.

Such is the provision made for middle class education in the
five great powers of Europe.

As to the other countries, we find that.

In Denmark, there is a Minister of Instruction and Eccle-
siastical Affairs. Education is also compulsory from the age of
seven to fourteen ; there are 4000 parochial schools with gratuitous
education, and all the considerable towns have their normal
schools, academies, and grammar schools.

In Belgium there is no Minister of Instruction. Education,
which under the Dutch Government was compulsory on all
classes, ceased to be so after the revolution of 1830. About
9000 persons, however, seem now to be employed in public
instruction.

In the Netherlands the Minister of the Interior superintends the
public education. There are dependent on him an Inspector-
General, with a staff of 70 school inspectors, whose duty it is to
inspect the public schools, of which there were, in 1857, 2478.

Middle-Class Education. 23

The attendance on these schools was one in eight of the entire
population, about 3,000,0(J0. Besides these public schools there
are 944 higher educational establishments.

In Greece there were, in 1852, 93(3 schools, public and private,
costing the State 26,772Z. King Otho established an Agricul-
tural School at Tiryns, but it proved a failure.

One-seventh only of the area of Greece is under cultivation.

In Italy, according to the official returns in 1863, the popula-
tion is computed at nearly 22,000,000. But this must be con-
sidered as only an approximation to the truth. There is a
Minister of Public Instruction, and also a Minister of Commerce,
Industry, and Agriculture. Great efforts have been made in the
cause of education, and most favourable results may be antici-
pated. Great part of the property confiscated from the Monastic
establishments has been devoted to public education ; and in
addition to this a sum of 600,000/. is annually voted by the
Parliament. Since 1860, 33 gi'eat model schools have been
opened.

In Portugal public instruction is superintended by the Secre-
tary of State for the Home Department. Under him there is
a Superior Council of Education, which holds its sittings at
Coimbra, which is the seat of a university, founded A.D. 1290.

Public education is free from the supervision and control of
the Church. By a law, passed in 1844, education was made
compulsory, but the law does not seem to be strictly enforced.
In 1854 there were 1200 public schools; in 1861, 1788. The
average attendance in 1862, being one scholar to eveiy thirt^'-six
inhabitants.

To return to some of the smaller German States.

In the Grand Duchy of Baden education is made compulsory
on all classes, and the penalties for non-compliance are strictly
enforced. In 18G1 there was one school for every 530 of the
population.

In Bavaria there is a Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs. Education is compulsory on all classes to the age of
14. There are " Volks-schulen " in all parishes. In 1861 there
Avere 7126 schools, with 8205 teachers. The annual cost to the
state is 96,000/. Out of every 1000 persons 679 are employed
in Agriculture.

In Snxony also there is a Minister of Education and Ecclesi-
astical Affairs. By a law of 1835 attendance at some place of
education is compulsory on all classes ; 95 out of every 100
being in actual attendance.

Hanover has also a Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs. In 1861 there were 4781 schools ; primary, secondary,
elementary and industrial.

24 Middle-Class Education.

In Wurtemberg also education is under the supervision of a
Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. In 1840,
besides classical seminaries, there were 2500 elementary schools,
and to the honour of this little country it is stated that in that
year there was no single individual of the inhabitants above the
age of 10 unable to read and write.

The above statement will abundantly show how thoroughly,
in other countries of Europe, the education of the middle classes,
as well as that of the higher and loAver, is provided for and
secured by the State.*

On a general review of this part of the subject it would
seem quite clear that theoretically the whole question admits of a
very simple solution, viz., that the State should provide schools,
teachers, and funds, and make education compulsory.

There is only one objection to such a scheme, but it is a fatal
one ; — it is simply not practicahle.

It would be looked upon with a jealous eye, as an interference
with the liberty of the subject. The middle classes would not
submit to be, as it were, pauperised, by receiving State assist-
ance, and the State would not grant the assistance, without
retaining to itself the right of inspection and supervision ; and,
lastly, apart from political questions, there would immediately
arise the one great difficulty, insuperable in this country, the
religious element.

Does, then, the problem admit of no — even partial — solution,
or are there in this country any means that could be made avail-
able for the purpose, unaccompanied by the drawbacks at which
I have hinted ?

I should answer, simply, there are institutions existing already,
which, with such modifications from State intervention as we may
hope will result from the Commission recently issued, would go
a very long way to supply the existing defects. I refer to the
Endowed Grammar Schools of England ; these may be put down
in round numbers as at least TOO.f They are scattered in nearly
equal proportions through the various counties of England, and
without any violent changes in their present constitution, they
might in a very great measure be made to carry out the object
proposed. It is pretty clear that such was their original design,
and if so, that their founders, could they be recalled to life, would
gladly consent to such modifications as would adapt them to the
requirements of the present age.

* All allusions to universities and the higher order of schools have been pur-
posely omitted.

t Including those foundations which are very small, and would not fall under
consideration, there are said to be about 2000.

Middle-Class Education. 25

The means, then, being to a certain degree ready to our hands,
let us see how they might be made available.

To show what might be done with endowed grammar schools,
perhaps the best practical course will be to state briefly what in
some instances has been done. I will therefore describe a system
which has been carried out in one grammar school with which I
am connected, and adopted as a model by several other schools
of a similar kind.

On my first appointment to that school, about fourteen years
ago, I found that practically it had sunk to the lowest possible
ebb. The school Avas represented by a commercial school of the
character which I have above described. The system of edu-
cation was barelv equal to that of the Avorst kind of parochial
school ; it was two centuries at least behind the age, and utterly
unsuited to the neighbourhood.

The first thing to be done, then, Avas to make the study of the
dead languages compulsory on no boy Avhose destination in life
was to be purely commercial or agricultural. The next step was
to introduce a large element of purely English instruction.
English grammar, English history, and some acquaintance with
English literature, together with a large amount of arithmetic,
were made the staple subjects of teaching, and were taught to
all boys.

The study of modern languages Avas next encouraged in CA'ery
possible way by offering numerous prizes for proficiency, and by
reducing the rates of payment to the smallest possible sum.
Shortly after, a master Avas added to the staff for the especial
purpose of teaching the elements of natural science. Particular
attention Avas paid to chemistry as applied to the useful arts,
manufactures, and agriculture ; and a laboratory AA'as constructed,
Avith every convenience for enabling boys to carry out practically
the lessons they had learned theoretically, particularly Avith
regard to agricultural chemistry and the analysis of soils, ma-
nures, (Sec.

In addition to these subjects, book-keeping was taught
thoroughly, as also land measuring. " Practical classes " were
also formed of senior bovs, Avho, under the superintendence of the
natural-philosophy master, Avent out and measured Avith their OAA'n
hands all the land in the immediate neighbourhood of the school.
The accuracy to which this class attained in a short time was
surprising, and many of the neighbouring farmers availed them-
scIa'cs of the serA'ices of the boys, for the purpose of ascertaining
the area of lands in their holding, AAhich had before been doubtful
or disputed. The " mapping out " of these surveys was afterwards
most carefully executed.

Such a system of education, at a \-ery trifling cost, seems to

2tj Middle-Class Education.

me to combine most of the elements of which middle class
education ought to consist. All this was, of course, the work of
time, and required a great struggle and much self-sacrifice, so
that, if all connected with the school had not had their heart
and soul in it, the plan could not have been carried out ; but
trustees, masters, and boys all combined heartily, and the result
was a successful one.

But the very difficulties we had to encounter only tend to
show how practical the scheme is. The funds of the school
were too limited, and the endowment for the mastership too
small to allow the necessary outlay to proceed from either the
funds of the trust or the pocket of the head master. While
the scheme, therefore, was still only an experiment (i. e. for
three years) the funds necessary for the payment of the natural-
philosophy master were most liberally provided by contribu-
tions from the neighbouring nobleinen and gentlemen. At the
expiration of that term the experiment was pronounced, to be
successful. The numbers of the school had risen to above 100,
and, in spite of many drawbacks, the average attendance lor the
last six years has amounted to 94. To meet the additional
payments required, a small capitation-fee was charged on all
boys whose parents were not resident within the limits of the
townships which have the right of free admission to the school.

The proficiency of the boys in all other branches of study, as
tested by yearly public examinations, has proved that the system
introduced has not interfered with the general efficiency of the
school with regard to those subjects which are generally made
the primary objects of grammar-school education.

No better proof of the practical working of the system can be
given than the fact that we are constantly applied to by the
trustees and headmasters of other schools for information (in all
cases readily given) as to our systein of working, time-table, &c.,
and for the services of our masters in testing by examination the
proficiency of their pupils who have been trained in a method
borrowed from our own. The time-table would show how very
slight a "bifurcation" is necessary in this scheme of instruc-
tion, would indicate the subject taught, and the time which is, on
the average, necessary to be bestowed on each subject to ensure
the attainment of a good practical knowledge of its rudiments as
an introduction to the active pursuits of after life. Enough has
perhaps been said to show that this scheme is not a crude theory,
but the result of real working and the practical experience of
years.

What we have done other grammar schools might do — we
may almost venture to say ought to do, and most of them may do,
with far fewer difficulties than we have had to surmount. And if,

3IidiUe-Class Education. 27

as lias been said, we have 700 such institutions existing throug-h
the length and breadth of the land, we may fairly hope that, with
a proper amount of intervention on the part of the State and a
fixed honest purpose to carry out the intentions of the original
founders, in the spirit if not in the letter, something approxi-
mating to a satisfactory solution may be given to the important
question of middle class education.

For, up to the present time, what has been done to supply this
acknowledged want? No general system has been pursued, no
comprehensive plan even suggested, that would in any sense
grapple with the difficulty. A few isolated efforts have been
made, and what do they amount to ? Let us glance at a few of
them.

The Agricultural Collesre of Cirencester, of course, first deserves
our notice. Noble institution as it is, it cannot m any sense be
considered as exactly suited to the object we are now considering.
The instruction given is only adapted to more advanced pupils ;
indeed it commences at a point to which, as a rule, the youth of
the middle classes hardly attain before they have finished their
education. The rates of payment are also too high for our object,
and its position not sufficiently central. With every good wish,
therefore, for its success, we may dismiss it with this brief
notice.

The educational establishment at Shoreham, with its adjuncts,
though intended to embrace a much larger section of the middle
classes, and though free from the faults just mentioned, has yet
one vital defect — it is so unmistakeably identified with par-
ticular religious views, that it will be regarded with somewhat
of jealousy by all who do not share those peculiarities, and con-
sequently it can hardly become a national institution.

The Agricultural School in Surrey, Prince Albert's School in
Suffolk, and especially that at South JMolton, though fostered bv
Avealthy and powerful patrons, for that very reason are not such
as can be offered as general objects of imitation ; though, in one
sense, model schools they can be looked upon at present only as
successful experiments, of which time alone can prove the prac-
tical utility.

The schools established by the " commercial travellers " for
the education of their children are too exclusive in their prin-
ciple and too restricted in their operation to serve as a model
for our imitation.

The specious scheme of " perambulating teachers," proposed
with the noblest intentions by one of the most enlightened and
benevolent of her sex, appears to be open to this strong objection,
in limine, i. e., that it would (or might) provide instruction without
education.

28 Middle-Class Education.

The moral training, the cultivation of habits of order, disci-
pline, and punctuality — the creation of a sort of esjjrit de corps,
which are the very life and soul of our most celebrated schools
and colleges — would in this case be absolutely thrown into the
background. Apart from other difficulties, which it would be
ungracious to suggest, this one consideration appears to me to
decide the whole question.

Let us, then, briefly sum up the advantages that would arise
from the adoption of the plan suggested : —

1. That the requisite machinery is actually in existence, ready
to our hand, and requires only a slight modification to render it
generally available.

2. That it is systematic, and might be made to provide educa-
tion on a comprehensive plan throughout the country, and that
as such it would go far to supersede those isolated and commer-
cial schools, which are the bane of the middle classes.

3. That as support would not be derived directly from the
State, the good old English feeling of independence and self-
reliance would still be maintained, all necessity for Government
interference and inspection avoided, as well as the manifest in-
justice of taxing the whole community for the benefit of one
special class. By the imposition of a small capitation fee, the
schools may in any case be made self-supporting, so far as any
extra machinery in the shape of additional masters is required.

4. That an education approximating and analogous to the great
system of public-school education (which for the classes to whom
it is confined is confessedly the best for moral, physical, and
intellectual training) may be secured to the middle classes.

5. That from the intervention of the State as a Visitor, rather
than an organiser and legislator, the whole " religious difficulty "
may be surmounted and the necessity of State inspection may be
obviated by making general what is now not uncommon, i. e., the
employment of examiners from the Universities to test periodi-
cally the efficiency of the schools.

6. That the children of the middle classes would no longer be
educated in exclusive seminaries, but mix with and be trained
along with others of their own age, and undoubtedly be improved
in every way by associating on equal terms Avith some of those
who in social position may be somewhat their superiors.

7. That this plan is surely better than that of extending
upicards from heloio the system already provided for the educa-
tion of the lowest classes.

Lastly, as a corollary to all these advantages, the great exist-
ing difficulty of providing efficiently trained masters for middle-
class schools is obviated. These endowed classical schools,
being already in the majority of instances under the direc-

Middle-Class Education. 20

tion and management of competent men, selected from those
who have graduated at our Universities with credit, if not with
distinction. Such a plan still leaves open the question of the
desirableness of creating County Colleges for giving further instruc-
tion to such pupils as are able and desirous to receive more
advanced information.

Such, then, are some of the advantages which it appears to me
would result from the adoption of the scheme here proposed —
a scheme which certainly meets many of the difficulties that
beset this important question, and is based on practical expe-
rience. Therefore, with all humility, but at the same time with
some confidence, I offer these suggestions to the consideration of
the Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Sandhach.

III. — Middle-Class Education, having reference to the Improve-
ment of the Education of those tvho depend upon the Cultivation of
the Soil for their Support. By Rev. W. Holt Beever, M.A.,
Oxon.

What I write upon this subject will be based upon my experi-
ence in the management of a country grammar-school, mainly
filled from the ranks of the middle classes ; not a small propor-
tion of the scholars being the sons of well-to-do farmers. Of
the latter section several obtained high honours at Oxford, two
(specially mentioned in the Report of Her Majesty's Commis-
sioners to inquire into the management, &c., of certain Colleges
and Schools, in 1864), having been University scholars as well as
first-class inen ; another obtained his appointment to Woolwich
from school, and is now an officer of high promise in the Royal
Engineers ; and another distinguished himself at Cirencester
College. ^loreover I have for some nine years had a farm of
my own, and have been successful as an exhibitor of stock. I
shall then at least not be drawing on my imagination in the
sketch I shall commit to paper.

The charges at this school come pretty near the mark assigned
by Mr. Edmunds (in his Lecture before the Central Farmers'
Club, February, 1865), as the fair price for Middle-Class Educa-
tion ; that is to say, from twenty-five to forty guineas per annum
were paid for Board, according to the " House," and ten guineas
for tuition in Latin, French, German, English, Mathematics, and
Drawing ; Greek, Music, Dancing, Drill, and Singing, being
"extras." Besides the Head -Master there were, for about sixty
boys, two Assistant-Masters (Classical and Mathematical), Uni-

so Middle-Class Education.

versity and Public School men ; a Writing and Commercial
Master; a Drawing Master (an artist who exhibits at the Aca-
demy) ; a French and German Master ; all resident, Avith salaries
guaranteed by the Head-Master ; the teachers of music and
dancing attended weekly.

My subject relates to Middle-Class Education, with special
reference to the agricultural section of the community ; but,
after much consideration, 1 have come to the conclusion that, up
to the age of fourteen, the education of the future farmer need
not differ from that of others, and that even after that age the
difference should be but slight, as I hope to show in detail.

The regular classical instruction given at the public schools
I regard as given specially in preparation for the Universities,
and consequently superfluous for the young farmer beyond a
certain limit, although, up to that limit, the best education of
any for all classes. The outdoor discipline of a public school is
confessedly the most admirable training for any sphere of life,
but such discipline is attainable at any large and well-officered
establishment where proper confidence in youth is shown. The
presence and example of superior masters, gentlemen of energy
and high moral character, in the play-field as well as in the
class-room, will raise the tone of feeling among the boys, if,
from leading a secluded life at home, with none but inferiors
at hand, any of them are at first wanting in refinement and con-
sideration for the feelings of others. Of such masters there has
been of late years, from a variety of causes, an abundant supply.
They must be fairly paid, but this is the cheapest policy in
the end, as the annals of many a college and school can testify.
The cheap usher is a mainspring of vulgarity, and is too often
given to low excesses, which rapidly infect his pupils.

The grand difficulty that besets a scheme for education at all
points in a small school is not the consumption of time (for
by a methodical adjustment of hours an intelligent master may
impart to industrious pupils a surprising amount of knowledge),
but the expense that is entailed by the engagement of adequate
teachers ; and this difficulty has been much increased of late in
consequence of the general diminution in the number of the
scholars who attend the smaller grammar schools. Several causes
have led to this result : —

1. The facilities afforded by the railways to the local gentry
for sending their sons to public schools, and the increase of such
schools under the operation of the Limited Liability Act, and
otherwise.

2. The increase of commercial academies professing to give
the so-called Middle-Class Education.

3. The indifference of the farmers in the choice of a school,

Middle-Class Education. 31

and tlie prevalent feeling tliat grammar schools do not give the
education which is required no\v-a-davs, and that their mission
has gone by.

It has, therefore, become difficult for the head-master of any
school not well endowed and most centrally placed to hold his own
at all. It seems impossible for the smaller grammar schools to com-
pete with joint-stock education, unless they can be so remodelled
that they may become the effective nuclei of large local establish-
ments on the " Bifurcation " plan : that is, having two depart-
ments — one Classical and the other Modern — working side by
side.

To determine what the required education is, let us run
through the subjects taught in a good school, which adopts a com-
prehensive scheme of instruction, and consider which portions
are essential or profitable to the farmer.

Relifjious Instruction. — The rule laid down for the Albert
Middle-Class College, Suffolk, can hardly be improved, it is as
follows : — " Religious instruction in accordance with the Doc-
trines and Practice of the Church of England. (N.B. Special
exemption from distinctive Church-of-England teaching, and
from Sunday attendance at the Parish Church or College Chapel
will be granted to sons of Dissenters upon application to the
Head-Master : the parents of such boys undertaking their care and
management on the Sunday to the satisfaction of the Governors)."

The Classics. — Seeing that this study need occupy no time
that can be required for any other learning, there is no good
reason why the farmer who begins his education in time should
not attain a certain fair proficiency therein. A wise man will
ever after be thankful that he attained, when he did not feel the
exertion, such an amount of classical knowledge at least as the
professions of Medicine and Law demand.

I am glad to see that Latin figures on the prospectus of the
Suffolk Middle-Class College. But I advocate further the intro-
duction of Greek to a certain jjoint, though of course I am content to
be coughed down when I start this oft disputed question. Those
only who are acquainted with the language can appreciate its
value, at once as an instrument to train the mental laculties, and
to throw light on the inmost shades of meaning in many a subtle
word that figures daily in the leader of their morning paper.
Contrary to the vulgar idea, Greek is a singularly easy language,
and a very short study of it would effect the main purpose for
which I advocate its introduction into every middle-class school,
viz., for the purpose of etymology. With this view the Greek
" Delectus," thoroughly taught, might answer every purpose, and
this surely could not, in the eyes of the most bigotted, absorb
much valuable time to the detriment of other studies.

32 Middle-Class Education,

In fact, as every schoolmaster will state, the difficulty is to
find the English class enough to occupy their time with. This
difficulty the purely commercial academy meets by the incessant
reduplication of writing and ciphering, all the beneficial effect
of which wearisome practice may be equally well attained in a
few months under a more reasonable regime.

I have stated that to a certain point the instruction required
is much the same for all, and that it is only after some pro-
gress has been made that teaching branches off to meet the
special requirements of the various professions and spheres of
life. This point may be reached at the age of twelve or fourteen,
according to the pupil's natural talent, and thenceforth he that is
intended for college will mainly devote his time to the study of
the classics, yet granting some part to the attainment of modern
language and science ; while the commercial lad will distribute his
day in the inverse proportions, making modern knowledge his
primary aim, yet not altogether neglecting the classics. So
might a far higher general tone of intellectual polish, a more
extended mental sympathy, be diffused throughout society, whilst
the peculiar acquirements of each profession were still respected,
in accordance with its distinguishing type. I cannot admit that
the intended farmer has at school no spare time for training
of this sort. The simple fact is that the young agriculturist is
usually of an idle sort as regards books, being given rather to
out-door sport, in Avhicli he is too much encouraged by the
injudicious remarks made at home. Granted that he cannot
often expect, like a Burns, to express in touching verse the
poetry of all the simple objects around him ; or, like Ferguson,
to take astronomical observations by the help of a slate-frame
strung across with beads as he watches his flock by night ; yet
that which he can easily acquire may give him gi-eat additional
grasp of mind, and gild many a tedious wintry or wet hour,
such as Virgil suggests may be devoted to the sharpening of
hurdle-stakes.

French. — To decide whether French be needful to the modern
farmer, it may suffice to take a look at our show-yards, and
remark the number of foreigners there present, and the extent
of their purchases both of stock and machinery. Every child
should acquire its difficult accent, and learn to converse with
ease at as early an age as possible.

" I only speak," said an accomplished traveller and linguist to
me the other day, " with the inevitably bad pronunciation of one
who began French at twenty-three."

German. — For the same reason, though not to the same
extent, would early instruction in German be of advantage.

Mathematics — In this study the young farmer need not advance

Middle-Class Education. 33

beyond a certain limit. But it is essential he should be taught
thus much, even if it be only to produce exactness of thought.
He should be strictly trained in the elements of geometry and
the laws and properties of matter. To go more into detail, he
should in arithmetic be quite at home in the four first rules,
vulgar and decimal fractions, proportion, extraction of square
root, logarithms, and book-keeping, so far as it can be taught in
schools.

Three times a week too he should be exercised in class (a
practice that from the keen competition tends admirably to
sharpen wits) in what is called mental arithmetic (M'Lcod's
handbooks are excellent) an accomplishment of great value in
any walk of life, but especially for those to Vv^hom rapidity of
calculation gives so much advantage in the market. In Algebra he
should perfectly master simple equations, then have some little
practice in quadratic equations, and get on to ratio, proportion,
arithmetical and geometrical progression, permutations, combi-
nations, interest. This need occupy no long period if the teacher
be able and the pupil willing, but further it were needless to go,
for here you leave the practical, which alone concerns us, and
enter the realms of pure science.

Of Euclid all gentlemen should learn most thoroughly Books
i. ii. iii. iv. It should be taught in class on a black-board, the
teacher first going through the problem himself as he expects it
to be said, then the next day calling upon his pupils to do the
same. The tutor's going through it first I know to be a mighty
help, that robs the volume of its horrors. After practice on the
black-board the class should go down, and in the presence of
the teacher carefully write out the proposition they have just
taken up in class, the MSS. to be carefully supervised by the
teacher and rewritten by the pupil. Then the next day when
they take up their new lesson they should be called upon briefly
and rapidly to indicate the key-point of each of these same
propositions, not going, as on the first day, religiously through
each ABC, D C F and G C H as they might by rote, but in
just a dozen words pointing out the kernel of the problem. This
is the best way to teach Euclid, rendering it thoroughly
available for future practical purposes.

The elements of meclianics, the laws of matter and motion,
hydraulics, c^c, eminently useful as they are to every farmer,
experience leads me to think can seldom be taught, even from
Messrs. Chambers' nice handbooks, with profit to a lad under
sixteen years of age, which I have fixed for the limit of the
young farmer's school-days.

Writing is of course a sine qua non ; and our late distingushed
Premier did much good by laying such emphatic stress on the

VOL. II. — S. S. D

34 Middle-Class Education.

advantages of a good hand — preaching which he is said to have
illustrated in practice. Beautiful handwriting is, as most
teachers will testify, from some strange cause, an hereditary gift.
There are some boys to whom its attainment costs nothing ; there
are others who could never acquire it, even by the most painful
application. Still, generally speaking, there is much to be done
in the way of improvement by a skilful teacher. Written im-
positions are sadly detrimental to a good style of handwriting.
I should, for this reason mainly, recommend that all impositions
be learned by heart, that they be well-selected passages, and be
always said over again a month after they were due and first
repeated. Then will punishment help to instruct : nor does my
experience induce me to think that the same objection can be
urged against such policy in schools as applies to prison disci-
pline, where it is reported that the ti'eadmill loses half its pain
when used to grind corn, or do other such good service ; the sting
of the punishment being keener in proportion to the worthless-
ness of the work.

English Grammar is tedious and needless to anyone who has
learnt the Latin Grammar.

The necessity of Geography and History it were superfluous
to dilate upon. The amount taught of each will depend alto-
gether on the teacher. A clever one needs no counsel : to the
inefficient no hint would be of service. For all practical pur-
poses I know no work so good as Cornwell's ' Geography,' and to
Chambers' ' Handbooks on History ' 1 must yield their fair meed
of praise.

As regards Composition., we will speak first of its material aid,
Spelling to Dictation. Spelling should be taught at a very
early age at home by the mother or governess, when its first
principles are acquired quite mechanically. We all know how
puzzling it is to come to think how such and such a word is
spelt. After ten, which is the earliest period at which a child
should be sent to a regular boys' school, this branch of instruction
will be continued by the method of dictation. I would here
only suggest that the passages read out should not be taken at
random, but carefully selected from choice authors, and that
the pupil should subsequently say them by heart, and after-
wards reproduce them on paper from memory. Thus, beyond
the mere attainment of spelling, without effort, gradually and
insensibly will be formed a habit (instinctive as the dropping on
the right note in music) of clothing in appropriate garb each
native thought as it rises in the mind ; the pen learning to run on
and to print each idea as it occurs, a performance which is at
the very root of facile expression.

Perhaps the most successful plan of teaching composition and

Middle-Class Education. 35

spelling together to young beginners is to read out rapidly, but
distinctly, a passage from an interesting volume of any first-rate
Natural History — Yarrell's ' British Quadrupeds and Birds,' for
instance — a description, say, of the mole, the swallow, the fox,
the raven. It is essential that the subject be attractive to the class.
Only the most picturesque and striking passages of the chapter
should be read, the boys standing around in class. They then
take their seats immediately beneath the master's eye, having an
hour to employ, during which time they are expected to cover
two sides of a large slate from their recollection of the matter
they have just heard read to them ; all original remarks being
interdicted.

At the first they are extremely shy to begin, or thought refuses
to flow ; and you see the poor little fellow bend his head in agony
upon his hands, as if in a vain attempt to squeeze out something
from his vexed brains. But after a while a thaw sets in, and
when they once begin, the allotted two sides of a slate are soon
covered, after a fashion.

So far so good ; but now for the grand improvement. Forbid
the use of a single " and " or " also " throughout the whole
exercise, and the effect is magical. The first essay in composi-
tion of any child will show at once how he depends upon these
unhappy particles, the result being a medley of all sorts of
thoughts linked together incongruously. Forbid their use, and he
at once casts about, under considerable difficulty at first, for the
best modes of breaking up and commencing his sentences. It
is surprising how great a variety of endings and beginnings he
will strike out, how terse and neat a style so formed will ulti-
mately become. As a teacher I reckoned it a lucky hour when
this expedient was hit upon, so great w as the relief it gave me.
Let any one give the plan a trial, and he will soon be con-
vinced of its value.

There is an equally rapid and successful mode of teaching a
boy to write an essay on any subject ; which, however, it scarcely
falls within my limits to describe.

Draioinc/ is not only of eminent service to the officer and sur-
geon, but it improves the eye and taste of all. I do not advocate
a child's beginning too young. Little boys, unless possessed of
real artistic talent, only get Avearied and disgusted bv incessant
practice in straight strokes and shading. Besides that, the
drawing-class is too often the refuge of the idler. It is impossible
for the master to do much with lads of this sort, while the annoy-
ance they give the more delicately organised artist will unhinge
the best temper, and prevent fair attention being given to the
more industrious. The little idling vagabond knows well that

D 2

36 Middle- Class Education.

it is far easier to shirk work there than in the schoohoom.
Afiecting attention so long as the master is leaning over his
shoulder, the minute after he will occupy himself with the
nearest neighbour of his own stamp, telegraphing to him all sorts
of mischief in a variety of ingenious ways ; rubbing up a favoui'ite
marble and exhibiting it to public gaze ; making crackers of his
indianrubber ; whittling his unhappy pencil, or bedaubing his
fingers and paper with a lump of homemade toffy.

The future farmer need not begin drawing until about twelve
or fourteen years of age, and two years ought to be an ample
allowance of time for the attainment of such proficiency as he
requires, for although his knowledge should be thorough to be of
use, the extent required is small. He should be able to draw
straight and curved lines with facility, and so as to make a simple
sketch from nature. To mechanical drawing and the use of instru-
ments he should pay considerable attention. Light and shade
he should learn, and he should have some practice in isometrical
projection. That small but excellent volume, the ' Illustrated
London Drawing-Book,' includes all this. The tests should be
practical, such as, " Produce the working drawings of a steam-
engine ; " " Draw a roller or waggon, with and Avithout the help of
instruments, and put them into shade ; " " Draw isometrically a
set of farm-buildings."

The great advantage of drawing, however, to the farmer is that
the eye thereby learns to take in proportions accurately, to judge
at a glance the distinctive features of two rival animals, or the
number of square yards in a given space. In this last respect of
course the study of geometry will be a further help ; still, to be
really skilful, he will require the two.

Too much time should not be spent in dawdling over finished
specimens (to be taken home at the holidays), indebted too often
for their telling touches to the master's pencil ; for all that the
young farmer need be taught is to sketch roughly, but effectively
and quickly, say, an octagon or eg^, to throw the same into
shade, the light shifting as the master may direct, and further, to
place them in parallel or oblique perspective. No more need
be taught ; all else that may be required fair practice will effect,
due allowance being made for industry and genius.

But for an agricultural drawing-class I would have also studies
of sheep, pigs, cows, and horses, in every posture — grazing,
standing, lying down — drawn with skill, not in the artistic, but
the show-yard point of view : some, too, without a feature to
redeem them, as the drunken Helot, for contrast sake. The farm-
yard animals " as they should be, and as they should not be " set
forth, after the manner of Lawrence in his Treatise on the Horse,

Middle- Class Education. 37

should be studied by the pupil until he can point out in life as
on paper the distinguishing excellences or defects of any animal
presented for his criticism.

To lay a flat tint in water-colours is an easy accomplishment,
which is useful in every sphere of life. Instruction in the few
plain primary facts which relate to the theory of colours might
be of service in preventing many a grotesque combination, as
well in dress as in furniture, Sic But in this respect much
will depend upon teacher and pupil.

Patholoqij and 3fedicinc may be reserved for the Agricultural
College, for, up to sixteen, those few boys who are gifted with a
strong inborn taste for the dissection of birds and frogs, &c.,
would alone feel interest in the study ; and one of these is more
likely to turn out an Abernethy or a Buckland than a Jonas
Webb. Even the knowledge of simple recipes, such as car-
bonate of soda with ginger, to be administered if frosted turnips
or vetches have soured the lamb's stomach, or a solution of chloride
of lime in case of hoove, — all suchlike lore, so quickly learnt
when the youth is old enough to give it heed, belongs not to the
period of marbles and hardbake.

Geology, Botany, Chemistry , Physical Science, Sfc, may best
be made the subject of clear pleasant evening lectures, with
diagrams and experiments to illustrate the lecturer's remarks.
Easy textbooks on these subjects might, however, be in use
during school-hours, and prizes might be offered for the best
portfolio of dried wild flowers and grasses (systematically ar-
ranged as to order and class), and the best cabinet of geological
specimens collected in the neighbourhood ; every boy being
obliged so to exert himself as to show weekly a sufficient collec-
tion of some sort, or the competition would soon become too
narrow. Pursuits of this sort give a charm to country walks,
and are a bar to mischief. To ensure greater attention to the
lecture than the fascination of the moment may elicit, questions
should be set on the subject of each lecture at the quarterly
examination.

Of Fencing, Drill, Dancing, S^c, I say nothing. Such accom-
plishments give grace and ease of manner, but are scarcely
essential to success on the agricultural arena.

Singing and Music. — With our present social habits, and the
increasing interest taken in the choir of almost every parish, it
must be an advantage to the young farmer to be taught class-
singing and music, as far as native ability allows. Every head-
master, on his part, must be thankful to have boys of a musical
turn under his charge ; a valuable centre for innocent amuse-
ment in a school is the youthful pianist.

For Gardening a taste may be encouraged during play-hours,

38 Middle-Class Education.

by giving' each boy a plot for his amusement, it being im-
perative that the plot be fairly cultivated, for there are a number
of boys who will shirk all labour whatever if they can. A small
exhibition should be held, and prizes given, at the fitting
season. Simple experiments with manures, superphosphate,
dung, urine, oak-leaves, &c., may be made, all of which will
leave in the mind a useful sediment of information for after
life.

Carpentering. — Since, as Mr. Mechi truly says, so much of the
farmer's prosperity depends upon an accumulation of small
gains, and, I may add, the avoidance of unnecessary outlav, I
Avould have him competent to direct and value the repairs of his
implements, out-houses, tScc. Something of this useful art the
boys might be easily taught on wet half-holidays, when they are
too apt to resort to the nearest public-house to drink on the sly,
or to the boot-maker's to smoke ; the axe, chisel, plane, and
other simple tools may then be put into their hands. Accom-
plishments in the way of turning will follow of themselves.
These labours should be superintended by a competent in-
structor who can maintain his authority — that is a vital point ;
for few things are more demoralising to a school, in the military
sense of the word, than an instructor who fails to command atten-
tion. I have found by experience that the best disposed lads
left to themselves in a carpenter's shop or turning-room too often
do exceeding and thoughtless damage.

If a boy have his playtime so occupied, he must have some
compensation when the rain has passed, or the result will be
damaging to his disposition. It is then a good plan to substitute
a boys' concert or an amusing lecture for the usual evening's
work.

Hours. — I have seen and known all sorts of " hours " tried,
but I never knew any plan that could surpass that which places
the hardest head-work early in the day (before the intellectual edge
is blunted, and the mental eye wearied by the multitude of images
that cross it), and the most fagging days earliest in the week ;
so you rob the necessary labour of half its pain ; the week slips
away insensibly and pleasantly, leaving a heap of work done, of
which the boy has scaicely felt the producing. I would have
the school up and at work at half-past 6 o'clock in the morning,
and the school day over at 3 P.M., when the boys should dine,
having had bread and butter at half-past 12. So you dissever
work from play, each being in its own time most thorough. The
system of intermixing the two throughout the Avhole day makes
school hateful, and can be likened only to giving half a dose of
medicine, which sadly sickens without producing the intended
beneficial effect. Especially oppressive both to pupil and

Middle-Class Education. 39

teacher, and consequently unproductive, are heavy afternoon
lessons following an early dinner. The early morning school
prevents much moral mischief in the dormitories.

Reckoning classics and mathematics to be harder than
English, French, and German, which in turn are harder than
arithmetic and drawing, as these last rank before writing and
dictation, I arranged my scheme of hours accordingly, and found
it popular on trial both with masters and boys.

School Management, Rules, 8fc. — I apprehend from the terms
of the thesis that our subject is limited to school teaching ; I
therefore pass by what might be a fruitful theme Avith the single
remark that too much confidence (to be exhibited in a hundred
ways) cannot be reposed in boys. The good feeling of the mass
under a judicious management will always check and set right
the vagaries and vicious propensities of the few. It is astonish-
ing how soon a new fellow tones to the school. A black sheep
detected, should of course be got rid of, if clearly incurable, as
quickly, but as quietly as possible.

And now we have got to the limit of our subject. My con-
clusion is, that, all the young farmer need know, he can learn
well at school by the time he is sixteen. If, having begun at a
fair age, he has not done so, it would be perilous, in a moral
point of view, both to himself and others, to leave him longer
among little boys.

But after sixteen — what then ? A few of the more ambitious
might wish for the opportunity to push on in studies that are
now just opening brightly on their view. But, as a rule, he
who settles down as a bov to the idea of being a farmer, and nothing
else, is not of an ambitious turn as regards study or intellectual
improvement of any sort.

At sixteen, when the commercial class is leaving for the
counting-house, the professional for the desk and surgery, what
are we to do to fill up satisfactorily for the young agriculturist
this most hazardous season ? It is a time of life and a state of
circumstances that present exceeding temptations to idleness and
vicious courses. 1 cannot see, after much consideration, that at
this age a lad can do better than go for a year's course to some
such place as Cirencester College or Glasnevin, near Dublin.

Of course this implies capital and pecuniary advantage on the
parent's part ; but so does modern farming in itself. Moreover,
the case will be materially altered if noble institutions like the
Suffolk Middle-Class College spring up over the land, and, simi-
larly to the grammar schools, be endowed with exhibitions,
which, having already acted as a stimulus to exertion at school,
shall help the less wealthy to a collegiate education.

To keep a lad of ordinary spirit steady at sixteen years of age.

40 Middle-Class Education.

he must have enough to occupy him, and he should be subjected
to competition with other lads of his age. It is a dangerous
plan to keep him about home. Few parents — I should say not
one in a thousand — are capable even of managing, much less of
teaching their sons, so as to ensure industry and improvement.
The discipline of a collegiate establishment seems the only safe-
guard for the lad who is leaving a middle-class school, such as I
have sketched. Having obtained his diploma at such a college
as Cirencester, and being possessed of character and steady prin-
ciples, he will, I conceive, now need only sufficient acreage and
sufficient cash to float him.

Such an education as I have sketched may possibly be con-
demned by a few as being on a too ambitious scale ; but, in
drawing it up, I have had my eye on the successful career of
two young lads, sons of farmers in my neighbourhood, who have
been as distinguished for j^ractical skill in agriculture as for
other attainments.

It may not perhaps be appreciated by, or acceptable to indolent
mediocrity, but it is such as the intelligent eager youth will
jump at, and such as shall satisfy his every requirement as an
agriculturist, although he will now have to compete, not as
formerly with some few neighbouring parishes, not merely with
all England, but with all the world — such an education as shall
fit him most thoroughly to make the earth yield him her increase
at least expense and with the most satisfaction to himself.

NOTES,

Having; arvanp;e{l and -written down my own tlionp:lits on the subject of
Middle-Class Education, I then went through and made certain extracts from
the official analysis of the evidence in the ' Keport of Her Majesty's Com-
missioners appointed to inquire into the Eevenues and Management of certain
Colleges and Schools, and the studies pursued and instruction given therein '
(1864), bearing upon various points which I have discussed. These extracts I
append below.

ScJioIarsJn'j) may he secured hj Economy of Time.

Right Hon. Sir J. T. Colekidge. — " In a public-school system education
and instruction should be distinguished : the best teaching is that of the
classical languages : there is an absolute necessity of carrying on concurrently
a considerable amount of special insti'uction : regards natural history, mathe-
matics, and so on as essential : would add French or German and some amount
of music and drawing. Would not try at Eton to make a perfect soldier, or a
perfect doctor, or anything of the kind, but would bring the boy's mind into
such a state that he should be more rcadj^ to embrace the more perfect know-
ledge which would be given him afterwards. Would make scholarship as
perfect as possible, and carry on those other collateral branches of education by
economy of time in the mode of teaching."

Middle-Class Education. 41

Difficulties of a ^^ Modern " Education.
Kev. G. G. Bradley, Marlborough. — " In answer to the question ' How
far is it possible to give a really good public school education on any other
basis than that of instraction in the dead languages ? ' I do not believe that
we are at present in a position to answer the question finally and decidedly, for
the experiment has not yet been fairly tried, but I may state briefly my own
opinion. While I should deliberately prefer as the best education, when
attainable, that mixture of careful study of the language and substance of the
great writers of antiquity, with modern reading and mathematics, which I
attempt to combine in my own teaching, yet I believe that a thoroughly sound
education may be given, and at the same time the advantages of public-school
liie enjoyed by boys with whom for various reasons a different plan is pursued,
a large space devoted to mathematics and science, and a thorough study of
German and French substituted for classics. But the difficulties of working
out this experiment are great," &c.

Cheap Masters are dear Bargains.

Eev. Dr. Temple, Eugbj-. — " We might have more masters by engaging at
lower salaries. But this would be an improvement in one way at the cost of a
serious damage in another. Good men cannot be got below a certain price.
The work is very severe, and a man must have the means of saving money
against the time when he can continue such work no longer. There is pro-
bably no employment which exhausts a man so thoroughly as teaching : and
this is well known, and men will not enter on such a profession unless they
have the prospect of providing for independence when retirement from work
has become necessary. Moreover, to be a thoroughly good teacher requires a
combination of many qualities : and the men who possess that combination
are proportionably rare."

Greeh an easy Language.

Mr. Calvert, Shrewsbury School. — " A son of a solicitor in Shrewsbury,
Intending his son for his own profession, placed him in the Non-Collegiate
Class, where his progress in Latin was so great that by it alone he placed
himself at the head of the Fifth Foma : at witness's suggestion the father
then consented to the boy learning Greek, and in seven months, never having
seen a Greek book before, he was able with a little preparation to construe a
jjassage of the Odyssej'. AVith Grammar and Dictionary he would probably
in less than an hour construe a chance passage of thirty lines."

The English Form an Idle Form.

Dr. Kennedy, Shrewsbury. — " I think a few put themselves on the Non-
Collegiate list merely from idleness. They are the idle boys of the school."

Mr. Calvert, Shrewsbury. — " The Non-Collegiate Class has a tendency to
encourage indolence."

Mr. Bentley, Shrewsbury. — " The Non-Collegiate Class established to
meet the wants of those who do not send their sons to the University do Latin
with the Class ; but instead of Greek and Verses, extra modern languages and
mathematics. They do not make more progress than the Collegiate boys,
though they have lour hours a week in modern languages against two hours of
the Collegiate boys. It is joined bj- a class of boys who hope thereby to escape
a portion of their regular form work — generally at the requirement of the
parents."

Bifurcation System.

Kev. E. Benson, Wellington College. — ^The boys in working their way up
the school follow one uniform course into which the leginning of Greek enters

42 Middle-Class Education.

until they reacli the middle of the school. At this point a bifurcation takes
place, and hoys can pursue either the mathematical or the classical course.
Latin remains their chief common ground, together with divinity, history, and
modern languages. This, however, is not the point at which the clever
' Moderns ' will usually divide from the others. It is suited for those who
are backward or who are to leave school young. The more advanced now
continue their Greek with a view to make it available in examinations ; and as
all the boys have four hours a week at mathematics, to which they can add
two or three imder a private tutor, there is time for them, if forward in
mathematics, to continue longer in the classical division, and to join the
mathematical divisions higher in the school."

Eev. R. Elwyn, Charter House. — " In the lower forms all the boys learn
Latin, Greek, mathematics, history, and geography, and the greater number
French. But when a boy has reached the fourth or any higher form if he is
desirous of entering into any profession for which special examinations have to
be passed, or for which the usual course of education in the school may not be
specially adapted, he is allowed to leave off the study of Greek and verse com-
position, and to devote the time which he would otherwise have given to these
subjects to mathematics, history, geography, &c. There are as has been
already mentioned, drawing and chemistry classes for those who wish to study
these subjects."

The Classics.

Eev. H. Latham, Trinity Hall, Cambridge. — " I have, after much consider-
ation and some change of opinion, come to the decided conclusion that classics
and mathematics are the best subjects to make the staple of education.
I have found that boys from schools at which it was made an object to
give information seldom recollected what they had learnt with suffi-
cient accuracy to be able to rely on it for any practical purposes, and were
generally deficient in the power of expressing their thoughts. In examining
schools when there has been a modern department, I have usually found that
the boys who had learnt Latin and Greek beat the boys in the other depart-
ment in their oivn subjects (except perhaps in something purely technical, as
drawing), and the impression was irresistible that the classical boys had
received better cultivation and could use their faculties to better purpose,"

G. B. Airy, Esq., Astronomer Eoyal, although a " Mathematician by
profession," cannot express the great importance which he attaches to the
classics, and would not on any acconnt disturb classical learning as the basis of
English education at our great schools, but sees no difficulty but rather great
advantage in superadding mathematics and good scientific knowledge.

Eev. C. Evans, Eugby, in answer to Lord Clarendon : — " You say that
having accjuired a solid groundwork in Latin and Greek they might then be
permitted to drop a certain portion of their classical work (say versification and
Greek), and devote the time thus gained to mathematics principally, to physical
science, history, and modern language, care being of course taken to guard
against superficial smattering ? " (Answer.)—" That meets exactly what I
think are the requirements of the age, and what parents now desire but know
not how to achieve.

" A valuable mental education would be afforded by the prosecution of the
study of mathematics or physical science, combined with a groundvjork of classics.
I should give the same education to all boys up to the average age, I think, of
fifteen. Up to Iburteen I think a boy's riiind is not fitted for the prosecution
of the study of physical science. I should make the education up to fourteen
almost identical with the education a boy now gets up to that age — the staple
being the classics, mathematics, and French. I do not propose in any case to
drop Latin up to Horace, Livy, Virgil, Cicero : would drop Greek simply for
the sake of the time spent on it."

Middle-Class Education. 43

Sir J. F. W. Herschell. — " I know it is a common idea that classical and
mathematical proficiency are incompatible, and imply fundamentally diiierent
conditions of mind. This, however (except as regards the higher degrees of
proficiency which go to render a man distinguished either as a scholar or a
mathematician, and the proposition might be then extended to every other
form of excellence), I disbelieve ; I believe that a great mass of good mental
power which might have become available to human progress, if duly fostered
and developed, has thus hitherto been lost to the community."

Arithmetic.

Dr. Whewell. — " Practical mensuration should be taught at school. It
%vould be a great advantage if the use of Logarithms were also taught. If
arithmetic were already taught effectually at school, I should be disposed to
add the use of Logarithms (I mean the practical use) as an art of great value
for abridging laborious arithmetical operations."

On French Masters.

Dr. MoBERLEY, Winchester. — " Foreigners can seldom be found to manage
and teach eflectually classes of English boys who are not anxious to learn."

Eev. C. B, Scott, Westminster — " The difficulty of working a French class
eflSciently is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is on many grounds desirable
that the master should be French by birth : and that if so he is sure to find it
a hard task to manage English boys. They constantly misunderstand each
other, and neither the instruction nor the discipline is what it is at other
times."

Eev. G. G. Bradley, Marlborough. — " In both departments (classical and
modern) foreign languages are taught by Englishmen."

Eev. E. W. Bensok, Wellington College. — " One foreign master in eacli
language is employed, and the system adopted with them is to put under them
the test modern scholars and the beginners in each school, and to place under
English masters those boys who from their state of progress require to be
steadily worked in exercises, and construing after a classical manner, rather
than to be practised in the nice polish of the language, or on the other hand to
begin the rudiments of grammar and pronunciation. These appear to be the
points in which foreign masters take pleasure and excel, and they have not the
same difficulties of discipline with either of those two classes of pupils as with
others. I cannot but be of opinion that if a school can include one Frenchman
and one German on its staff for the purpose of correcting pronunciation and
looking over the higher kinds of composition, and can then intrust the greater
part of the French and German teaching to Englishmen who have had an
University Education, and who having lived abroad are thoroughly versed in
the foreign language which thej'' undertake to teach, the work will be lar more
effectively done than by any other arrangement."

Max Muller, Esq., Oxford. — " I find as a general rule that fluency in
speaking is never acquired at any public school whatever. Whenever I find
fluency in speaking I can always trace it to an extraneous source. I think
the expeiicnce of continental as well as English schools is against attempting
to impart to schoolboys a conversational command of the language. To acquire
fluency in the foreign languages, especially English and French, has been-
attempted at the Eeale Schulen, not in the Gymnasia. One hour a Aveek or a
fortnight, devoted to the principles of comparative grammar, would be a saving
of more than ten hours in teaching French and Latin." Eecommeuds that both
French and German be taught in schools by Englishmen who have had oppor-
tunities, either by travel or by birth, of acquiring a fair knowledge of the

44 Middle-Class Education.

languages. " They should ground the boys, but there should be a French and
German assistant under the supervision of the Englishman to read aloud to
the boys, to dictate to them also, and to give them any facility for acquiring
any exceptional knowledge of the language. Accent is very much an affair of
ear." " Almost impossible to remove a bad accent once acquired." " I believe
that a great deal of time might be saved iu the teaching of French at public
schools if it -were grafted on the knowledge of Latin which most of the boys
possess." " Goethe, in spite of his great partiality for physical science, I
believe would have grudged every hour taken from Greek and Latin in the
education of boys at school."

Drawing.

T. 1). AcLAND, Esq. — " By drawing is meant such expression of linear form
as may be learned by any one who can write : the cultivation of the artistic
faculty, which is rare, is another question."

Eight Hon. Sir J. T. Coleridge — " Thought it very desirable for boys to be
instructed in drawing and music."

" I remember that a great many years ago now I was at Pestalozzi's
Institute, when the old man was alive, and I brought away some of his copj'-
books and drawing-books, and it appeared to me that all the boys in that
immense school were drawing figures, chairs, and tables, and so on, all
drawing by perspective. He said he ibrmd everybody could do it. If it did
not go beyond that the boy would still have acquired that which would bo
useful to him in after life."

Little hoys need not hegin.

Dr. Hessey, Merchant Taylors'. — " Drawing is taught in the school to the
boys of the head, second, third, aud fourth mathematical classes."

PJiysical Sciences, &c.

Eei'Ort of the Commissioners on Rugby School (" the only one amongst
those constituting the object of the present inquiry in which physical science
is a regular part of the curriculum").- — " We are of opinion therefore that boys
even in the lower forms of the school may advantageously be permitted to
receive school instruction in the elements of physical science. Lectures treating
such topics as may be suitable to beginners, and handling them in such a con-
siderate style of statement, explanation, and illwstration as may divest them of
imnecessary difficulty, will perhaps be a more wholesome and agreeable relief
to the learning and application of grammar rules and to the technical working
of arithmetic than any other studies, and will furnish a most salutary exercise
of many faculties which at such an age are ripe for cultivation."

Jjectures on these subjects cere recommended cdso hy Dr. Whewell and
Professor Faraday.

Professor Owen. — " Would recommend every boy of a proper age, say
about fifteen, to be compelled to listen to a course of lectures on Natural
History, embracing Zoology, Botanj^, &c., one hour a week for six months," &c.

( 45 )

\\.— Thc Blanagcment of Cattle. By William Little.
Pkize Essay.

It is universally admitted tliat there is no subject connected
with farm produce of more importance at the present day than
the management of cattle. The relative prices of beef and grain
affords sufficient evidence of this. Taking it for granted that
too much has not as yet been written upon this subject, I pro-
pose to give a plain report of the general management of cattle
throughout the estate with which I am connected, and more
particularly to state the results of some experiments conducted
by me during the summer and autumn of 18b*4, on one farm in
a high state of cultivation in Connexion with a colliery.

The estate referred to is Lambton, the property of the Earl
of Durham. Several important collieries are worked by the
proprietor, and, although the greater portion of the land is let on
lease to good tenants, the requirements of the coal-mines neces-
sitate the retaining of several arable farms of various sizes in
the owner's hands. It very frequently happens that when agri-
culture is thus closely allied to the working of a commercial
enterprise it only receives a very secondary share of attention,
but such is not the case here. The greatest attention is paid
to the cultivation of the land as well as to the working of the
mines.

In connexion with the cultivation of the land the management
of the cattle is deemed a matter of the first importance. Our
course of breeding is a successful system of crossing between
two established breeds. The larger proportion of the herd is
from a cross between the Shorthorn bull and the West Highland
heifer. The result of this cross is a finely-developed animal lor
the butcher, which invariably possesses in a great degree the
size, form, and feeding qualities of the sire, whilst at the same
time inheriting the hardy constitution of the dam. About
50 or 60 West Highland heifers (a year and a half old) are
annually bought at the Falkirk Tryst or Fair in Scotland. They
ai-e brought home to the highest-lying farm, where they are
wintered on straw and a few turnips, and merely kept in a fair
thriving condition. In May they are turned out to pasture on
the same farm, and the Shorthorn hv^\ is put amongst them
in the beginning of July. In the autumn they come down
to the lower-lying farms, where they get a run over the pastures
which have carried the ieeding-stock, and on the annual draft ol
fat cattle being disposed of before Christmas they are taken into
the fold-yards. They are kept upon a moderate allowance of
turnips, oat-straw, and water in the folds. They generally drop

46 Management of Cattle.

their calves in the yards, chiefly during April and the beginning
of May. No inconvenience or loss from accident ever arises
from their calving in the yards, as none of them ever injure a
young calf. The calves are allowed to suckle their dams, and
are turned out to pasture with them between the 10th and 15th
of May. They, i. e. the heifers with calves, are generally thinly
distributed over the sheep pastures on second year's grass (seeds)
or secondary old grass-land, where they have an abundant supply
of water. The calves are weaned from their dams about the
latter part of October, and the mothers are taken to low-lying
sheltered fields, where they get dry in milk ; and, about Christ-
mas, as the fat stock is cleared off, succeed to the empty boxes.
They have turnips, — a moderate allowance at first, but gradually
increased to as many as they can eat, except in seasons such as
that of 1864, Avhen the turnip-crop, being deficient, was supple-
mented with a daily allowance of o lbs. or so of barley-meal and
Indian corn-meal mixed. It has been customary to give the
turnips sliced, but last year the pulper was introduced, and has
been found to be a valuable economiser of roots. No fodder is
used for our keeping or feeding cattle, but good oat-straw,
which when grown upon early land, and given with turnips, is
found to have as good an effect as the best of hay. The Kyloes
are kept in the boxes until about the 10th or 12th of May, when
they are turned out to good old grass-land. On their pasture
failing, about August, they get the aftermaths of the fields cut
to supply hay for the coal-pits. They come in again to the boxes
in autumn and receive turnips, cake, and meal, and are sold by
auction at home at the annual Christmas sale held in December.

In the bad, dry season of 18G4, this description of stock,
having got nothing in addition to their pasturage, were not so
ripe as usual, but at the sale our Kyloe heifers, 4|^ years old,
averaged 24/. odd. When purchased, they cost between 5/. and
6/. If it be thought, on calculating their keep up to the time
of sale, that there is little margin for profit, I may observe that,
until they have a calf at their feet, their keep is nominal, as
they are made the scavengers or gleaners of what other stock
leaves ; besides, they benefit the farm to which they are [first
taken by converting the straw into manure in a locality not
adapted for fattening stock.

Our cross-breeding is now extended with great success, though
not quite to an equal extent, with the Galloway heifer and
Shorthorn bull. The result of this cross is a fine, noble animal,
of excellent symmetry and great weight. The Galloways are
treated exactly as their sisters the West Highlanders, except that
being scarcely so hardy they require, on pastures failing, to be
eailier removed to better keep. This is reasonable, because the

Management of Cattle. 47

Galloways are much the larger and heavier animals ; and in
1864 two of the Galloways weighed, when killed, 86 imperial
stones odd, and a West Highland Kyloe heifer, reached the
respectable weicjlit of 63 imjierial stones (4| years old).

The Crosses or Half-breds.
The calves (half-bred Kyloes and Galloways), when taken
from their dams in October, are put into comfortable and roomy
folds and upon good keep. They have good old-land hay, a
few tui'nips steamed, with hay-chaff and a small daily allowance
of oilcake. This plan of feeding is found to be very healthy,
the steamed food and oilcake being a preventive to quarter-ill.
After the first winter they have no more cooked food nor hay.
In the spring they are turned out to fine old grass-land. In
order to inure them to the variableness of the weather and to
avoid the risk of a sudden change, they go out for a few days
and come in at night, before being sent to their summer's grazing.
On their pastures failing, they either follow feeding stock on the
old-land aftermath or have a secondary aftermath allowed them.
They come into yards in the autumn either at the same time
with the feeding stock or shortly after, and receive turnips and
2 lbs. or 3 lbs. of meal. The object is to keep them in a steadily
improving condition, avoiding even a single check to their pro-
gress. The meal in such a season as the present (1864) is
cheaper feeding than turnips. In May again they are turned
out to the best old pastures on the estate, and, before being
stalled in the autumn, have the run of the best of the after-
math. They are generally brought into boxes about the middle
of October, and receive turnips, 4 lbs. or 5 lbs. of meal, and
2 lbs. or 3 lbs. of good oilcake. They are sold by auction in
December "for Christmas consumption, when about 2^ years old
(or little over), and generally average close upon 30/. It will
thus be seen that the mothers are sold one year before their
produce, but along with a former year's lot of half-breds ; and,
as this system is steadily pursued, the result is that a prime lot
of fat cattle is annually disposed of at Christmas which, along
with an equally prime lot of sheep, realises between 5000/. and
6000/. Several of the picked animals of this class and age
have of late years brought 50/. and over.

Experiments.

Within the last two years (1863, 1864) a slight deviation has been
made from the usual routine of management, Avhich the reader will
be the better able to comprehend after having become acquainted
with the general treatment of the stock. The soiling system, or
feeding in the yards on cut grass, meal, &c., has been for two

48 Maiuujcment of Cattle.

successive seasons tested against grazing in the open field with
the same allowance of meal, cake, &c., as well as against grazing
without any supplementary food. Our experiments for the first
year, though they gave satisfactory results, did not receive such
minute attention as would enable me to illustrate them by
figures. In 1)504 it was resolved to be more systematic and
methodical in our arrangements ; and, although we had the
disadvantage of experimenting with cattle of different ages and
breeds, this difficulty was got over by employing competent
practical judges to value the various lots at the commencement
of the experiments. Taking the difference between the valuation
and the sum realised at sale, we are able to arrive at the value
each lot left per acre for the crop consumed.

Lot 1. — Twelve in number, consisted of 5 Galloway heifers,
4 years old, valued on 12th May, 1864, at 25/. each ; 5 half-
half-bred heifers, 2 years old (crosses between West Highland
Kyloe, and Shorthorn bull), valued at same date at 19/. each,
and 2 West Highland Kyloe heifers, 4 years old, valued also at
19/. each ; the total value of the 12 cattle being 258/.

From 12th May to loth October they were kept upon a 6-acre
field of Italian rye-grass and clover, daily cut and carted to them in
the yards ; and from 13th October to 17th November they were
fed upon turnips, «5cc. Along with their grass, and subsequently
with their turnips, they had 5 lbs. each per day of Indian corn-
meal and barley-meal mixed ; and from loth August to 17tli
November they had, in addition to the above, 2 lbs. each of
best oilcake. The cost of the meal and cake respectively is
lOf/. per imperial stone for the former, and Ibd. for the latter
(or 10/. per ton), cash prices. The sum the lot realised at sale
was 377/. 5.S., from which deduct od. per pound discount for
cash (= 4/. 14s. 3f/.), leaving 372/. lOs. 9^.

Thus 12 cattle, prime value of lot
5 lbs. meal per day, from 12tli May to 17th November
2 lbs. oilcake per day, from 13th August to 17th")
November /

302
372/. 10s. M. against 302/. gives a difference of 70/. 10s. 9^^.
for grass and turnips consumed. While upon turnips the lot
consumed, on an average, besides the meal and cake, 6 stones of
sliced roots per head per day : these were swedes, and the best
crop on the farm. The weight of the crop (cleaned bulbs) was
about 30 tons per acre (6 tons per acre below the maximum in
1863 on the same farm). It Avill thus be seen, from the quantity
of sliced roots consumed per day and the weight of the crop,
that the above lot, during the time they were upon turnips, were

£.

s.

d.

258

33

15

10

5

Management of Cattle. 49

kept on little over half an acre. We therefore debit the account
with 7/., as the value of half an acre of turnips consumed upon
the place, leaving of the above balance 60/., or 10/. per acre, for
Italian rye-grass. The grass would have done more, had the
season not been an exceptional one. It was top-dressed with a
mixture of Peruvian guano and nitrate of soda in the beginning
of April, at a cost of rather more than 1/, per acre. It afforded
three cuttings, and after the two first received a good watering
from the liquid-manure tanks with the water-cart. The farm-
horses were all kept in yards during the summer, fed with grass
supplied from another field, and in the latter part of August and
September with tares. The urine from the above stock did not
suffice for the liquid-manuring of the 6-acre field, which also
received that which remained in the tanks from the winter-fed
stock. The yards are all Avell supplied with water, and, in order
to economise straw, we only litter the covered portions with it
and the outrake with saAvdust. It is hardly necessary, nor would
it be easy, to state the cost of attendance on the above lot of
cattle, as one man cut the grass and tares for both horses and
cattle and attended on the latter as Avell as the other grazino-
stock on the farm. The value of manure made from feeding in
the house I estimate at more than an equivalent for the expense
in top-dressing, labour in cutting grass, cartage, and attendance.
Since the middle of October, too, the keeping ewes have fre-
quently had a run over the field cut for soiling, thereby also
contributing to profit or the lessening of expense.

Lot 2. — Twelve half-bred heifers, 2 years old (crosses between
the West Highland Kyloe and Shorthorn bull), were turned out
to graze on a 9-acre field of rich old grass on the 12th of May.
They came into the folds for a few nights when first turned out.
They were valued at the same time and by the some persons as
Lot 1 at 16/. each. They received in every respect the same
quantity and quality of supplementary food as Lot 1. They
were also put upon turnips at the same date, and with the same
accommodation in boxes 9 feet square.

£. s. d. £. s. d.
This lot realised at the sale 293i'., or deducting) ^^

3'/. per poimd discount ) *' " -oJ b J

It is debited with cost price 192

5 lbs. meal per day each, from 12th May to) or> i^- o,

17th November ^ oo lo

2 lbs. oilcake per day each, from loth August! ta r r,

to 17th November \ ■^'-' '' ^

23n

53 6 9

a balance of 5/. 3.?. per acre for rent of grass field, besides 7/,
VOL. IT. — S. S. E

50 Management of Cattle.

for lialf an acre of turnips consumed. This lot, being all young
growing stock, consumed, as nearly as we could calculate, the
same quantity of turnips per day as Lot 1. The field of old
grass upon which they grazed lies contiguous to the field from
which Lot 1 was fed, and is, if anything, to be preferred to it
for quality of land.

Lot 3. — Sixteen West Highland heifers, 4 years old, were
grazed upon an 18-acre field of old grass. They were valued,
Avhen put to grass on 12th May, at 14/. each. They had neither
meal nor cake while upon grass, and Avere brought into turnips
on the same day and received the same allowance of turnips,
cake, and meal as the two former lots.

£. s. d. £. s. (1.
This lot realised at the sale, deducting discount) „, , , „ ^

as before )

It is debited with cost price 224

5 lbs. meal per day each, from 13th October) q r s

to 17th November \

2 lbs. oilcake per day each, from 13th Octoberi r a

to 17th November ,. )

£37 6 8

AVhich gives a difference .. .... 7-4 3 4

Thus 31 IZ. IO5. against 237Z. 65, 8fZ. gives a difference of
74/, 3^. 4c?., from which sum 87. 3^. Aid. must be deducted for
turnips (at the rate of 14/. per acre), leaving a balance of 6G/. for
rent of 18 acres of grass, or 3/. 13s. Ad. per acre.

The land upon which this lot grazed we estimate at \0s. per
acre less in value than that depastured by Lot 2, the herbage
being coarser and not so feeding as the other, so that in contrast
to the other field, we are justified in stating the result at Al. o.'?.4c/.
per acre.

The deductions we make from the above experiments are, 1st.
That soiling or feeding in the house during summer gives about
double the return obtained from grazing in the open field with
supplemental food ; and 2nd. That grazing with supplementary
food gives a return of at least 1/. per acre more than grazing
Avithout anything supplementary. Every grazier knows that the
months of August and September are critical, as pastures to a
srreat dearree have lost much of their nutriment, and unless cattle
either get a little meal or cake upon them they very frequently
lose what they have gained during the three previous months.
The soiling is found to be the most profitable in every respect,
(especially from the superior efficacy of the manure so made), and
would be resorted to on a larger scale, but that it curtails the crop
of new land hay, of which a large quantity is required for the horses
in the coal-pits. On the different farms, however, between 30 and

Management of Cattle. 51

40 cattle were so kept during the summer of 1864. In speaking
of the general treatment of the stock we have mentioned the
aftermath, but in 1864, in consequence of the drought, it never
became fit to carry stock, and in consequence of a general short-
ness of turnips the sale took place a month sooner than usual.*

The Pulping of Turnips.

We introduced the pulper in the autumn of the year 1863-4.
For the first season we only fed a part of our number of cattle
with pulped turnips and cut chaff, to test the value of the system
as against the usual plan of feeding with sliced roots. The
result showed, firstly, a decided economy from the use of the
pulped food ; and secondly, that the cattle so fed were, if not
better, at least equal in quality to those fed on the old plan.
From actual experiment, we find that by giving each beast
10 lbs. of cut straw mixed with pulped roots there is a
saving of 21 lbs. of turnips per day on each animal. Two lots
of 8 each were set apart for the experiment. Those on sliced
roots consumed on the average 8 imperial stones per day, with
8 lbs. each of oat-straw out of the racks uncut. They had what
they would eat of both. The other lot had a mixture of cut
straw and pulped turnips, what they would eat, with oat-straw
uncut ab libitum, and consumed on the average 6-| stones of
pulped roots and 10 lbs. of cut straw, with 4.h lbs. of long straw
per day each beast. We now pulp for 63 cattle, and, estimating
the saving of roots at li stone each per day, we save above
4 tons 2 cwt. per week on the average, and above 106 tons during
the half-year, equivalent to 3^ acres at 30 tons per acre.

We have substituted horse for hand power in the working of
the pulper, and fitted up an outhouse convenient for the supply
of the yards and feeding-boxes. The cost of erecting horse-gin
and fittings, with the machine itself, was about 20/. The expenses
for attendance on the above cattle are, charging for the horse 2^
hours per day (the time occupied in pulping) and the partial
services of one woman extra, 10s. per week more than when
they were fed with sliced roots in the usual way.

Perhaps some might effect, by a larger admixture of straw
with the pulped turnips, a far greater saving than that stated,
without bias, as the result of our experience, and with which
we are satisfied. Those who object to so considerable an ad-
mixture of straw should bear in mind that the stomach of the

* The labour for soiling tlie cattle on the Italian rye-grass, must be equal to
30s, per acre ; and we think it is not desirable or profitable, as a rule, to keep 12
beasts on 18 acres of land for nearly six months without any change of pasture,
though such management much facilitated a comparative experiment. — R. M.

E 2

52 Cross-Breeding Cattle.

ox is fitted for a large amount of bulky food not necessarily all
of a very nutritious kind. This must be filled before he lies
down to ruminate contentedly. He can and will eat as much of
rich food as of the comparatively innutritious sort, but not with
an equally good effect. His system cannot assimilate more than
a moderate quantity of the flesh or fat forming substances con-
tained in rich food, and consequently it becomes overloaded and
irritated so that scouring is produced, especially at the first. All
who are acquainted with the feeding of cattle know that when
first put upon turnips— as many as they can eat — they for a
considerable time get worse in condition, instead of improving.
This is particularly the case with cattle low in condition, and could
be entirely avoided by the judicious use of the pulper. Besides,
the argument for its use at first, applies with no less force to its
general adoption. Although the cattle with which we have to
do are seldom low in condition, still we consider it a duty to
economise as much as we can the available food for live stock,
as a means of increasing the number of our cattle and, conse-
quently, the supply of beef for the public. The demand for
beef and mutton is not met by a corresponding supply ; let us
then welcome every implement which can help us to either to
grow more food or economise its consumption.

Y.— On Cross-Breeding Cattle. By G. Murray.

I PROPOSE in this paper to consider briefly the chief means
within our reach for cross-breeding, and the chief inducements
which encourage us to make the attempt; to take a rapid survey
of the principal changes already wrought, casually or designedly,
in various counties in England and in Scotland, and of the most
important breeds employed to that end ; that after this intro-
duction I may direct more special attention to a scheme for
establishing a new breed, which has been carried out deliberately
and systematically under my personal observation.

Although the improvements of our breeds of cattle has long
received the close attention of a few energetic agriculturists, it is
only of late years that our efforts have become general, scientific,
and systematic.

The modern breeder has now a great advantage over his pre-
decessors, because the pains taken by one generation has much
facilitated the labours of their successors and enabled them to
enlarge their sphere of operations. The first point was thoroughly
to establish certain breeds of indubitable purity, as attested by
authentic records : this was a work of time, yet it was a necessary

Cross-Breedinf/ Cattle. 53

preliminary to attempts at cross-breeding', unless of the most
random and indiscriminate character.

When such attempts have been unsuccessful, the failure has in
most instances arisen from the use of inferior bulls, since the
increased value of the offspring depends on their bearing' in a
marked degree the superior stamp and quality of the sire.

Whilst the materials for successful cross-breeding are now
ready at hand, new inducements, new aids, and new lights are
not wanting for our encouragement and guidance. The demand
for meat is not only larger but more fastidious — even the artisan
class being now more dainty in their choice ; the coarser animals
are, therefore, more depreciated than formerly : moreover science,
by teaching us to note the action of different kinds of food on
the animal economy, leads us to set a special value on those
breeds whose powers of assimilating rich food are greatest.
Veterinary science also not only enables us to treat ordinary
forms of disease, but prompts us to try to reconcile by cross-
breeding the two great desiderata — a vigorous constitution with
aptitude to fatten.

Whilst I advocate judicious cross-breeding, let it be distinctly
understood that I fully appreciate the importance of maintaining
our principal breeds in their utmost purity. This object, how-
ever, will be best effected by reserving all the most perfect female
specimens for the maintenance of the pure race, and bv appro-
priating to cross-breeding those only which are defective in some
few points.

The importance of using, even for cross-breeding, none but
first-class bulls, can hardly be sufficiently insisted upon. Indeed
the marked success which has attended the use of short-horn
bulls may be attributed not less to their established position
than to the intrinsic merits of the race.

There are few of our domesticated animals, to the breeding of
which as much time, talent, and capital has been devoted as to
the improved short-horn. He has, in consequence, acquired a
permanent stamp and character which is of the utmost value for
the object of improving common dairy stock, because the breeder
feels assured that the valuable properties so carefully elaborated
in the parent Avill be transmitted to the offspring.

Commencing our survey with the South-west of England, we
find in the mild, moist, congenial climate of Devonshire a race
almost faultless in form (especially in North Devon), which,
while maintaining its purity at home, has exerted much influence
on the cattle of other counties. The cows would be of great
value to put to Hereford or short-horn bulls, particularly the
latter, and we have seen some good specimens of this cross shown
in the Agricultural Hall, Islington, in 1862 and 1863; but the

54 Cross-Breeding Cattle.

best breeders jealously guard their cows from contamination. In
the richer pastures of Cornwall the native breed is less pure, but
attains a greater size : they are frequently crossed with the short-
horn or Hereford, but the produce is generally coarse in the horn,
has a large head, a profusion of bone below the hocks and knees,
and a thick tail. Its muscular development is more remarkable
than its disposition to fatten. The ribs are generally flat — a
flat-sided animal of any breed is particularly liable to derange-
ment of the digestive organs. Good new blood is here much
required ; but it must be thoroughly good, to work an effectual
change. In Hampshire, Devon bulls have been largely used ;
but as the produce were shallow milkers, short-horn, Ayrshire
and Channel Island sires have been preferred. The use of the
two last has led to improved milking capabilities — the former to
greater aptitude for feeding ; but in each case the success or
failure of the experiment has depended greatly on the purity of the
male parent. In Somersetshire the old original breed, when put.
to the improved Devon or Hereford bull, have bred on the rich
feeding-lands cows of gigantic size, highly prized by the dairy-
farmers. Many of the heifers and barren cows may be seen at
the fair held at Kingston-on-Thames on the second of August.

The county of Hereford, with its fruitful soils resting on the
old red sandstone formation, and moist climate, favourable for
crops both of grass and of roots, has not only celebrated cattle,
but farmers who are first-rate managers of stock. Foremost among
these was Mr. Benjamin Tomkins, who, commencing his career
about the year 1769 with two cows, "Mottle" and "Pigeon,"
by judgment, industry, and perseverance, raised himself from a
humble position and made himself a name in the annals of agri-
culture. The best breeders jealously preserve the purity of their
stock, yet in cases where a cross with the short-horn has been
tried, the produce has invariably been a superior animal for the
grazier.

In Shropshire the Hereford bull has been largely and success-
fully used for crossing with Welsh and native cows, and the
combination of the Welsh and Hereford blood has by frequent
repetition become almost a distinct breed. They are of a dark
red colour, with mottled faces, are thick-fleshed, and generally
more hardy than the best-bred Herefords, but do not attain so
early a maturity : they are highly esteemed by the graziers, and
are known in the fairs of Leicester and Northampton by the
name of Shropshires.

The Pembroke or North Wales breed are sometimes crossed
with the short-horn, but more frequently with Hereford bulls.
The first cross are in some cases an improvement on the original
stock of the district ; yet they are slow growers, and being less

Cross-Breeding Cattle. 55

hardy, are on the whole ill adapted to bear exposure to that
climate until the extension of cultivation and general improve-
ment have modified its character. In like manner the Gla-
morgan or South Wales breed have been crossed with the Devon
and Hereford (the latter having the preference), but with so little
success that the breeder will here best promote his intei'est by
attending to the improvement of the existing races.

The Hereford bull has likewise been extensively used with
the home-bred dairy cows in the counties of Gloucester, Warwick,
and Worcester, which have the general character of the short-
horn (though not o* the improved type), with some peculiarities.
The produce is commonly seen in the fairs and markets in the
counties just named, as also at Banbury and occasionally at
]\orthampton. They are large and weigh well, have great apti-
tude to fatten, are of first-rate quality, and consequently are in
good favour with the butcher. Many graziers prefer them to
the average run either of Hereford?, or Devons.

In the east of England the polled Suffolks, a much improved
breed which is highly esteemed for the quantity and quality of
their milk, offers suitable subjects for crossing with the short-
horn bull. The first cross are good in quality, feed to great
weights, and attain maturity at an early age. We have some
experience of a cross between a short-horn bull and some cows
purchased of Lord Sondes, and the produce evince great promise.
We have also tried a cross between the short-horn and Channel
Island breeds, and find that the cows of the first cross ai'e of greater
size ; the yield of milk is increased in quantity frequently at the
expense of quality ; the steers feed readily, and reach a good
weight, but the meat, particularly the fat, invariably retains the
yellow tinge peculiar to this breed.

If we now turn to Scotland we shall find among its native
breeds some of the best materials for cross-breeding.

Galloway, which comprises the counties of Wigton, Kirkcud-
bright, and Dumfries, was once the exclusive home of the polled
Galloway breed which bears this name ; even at home it has had
for some years to struggle for the ascendancy with the dairy cows
from Ayrshire. Formerly the Galloways were bred on most
farms in this district, grazed for three years on the inferior
pastures, and then sent to be finished off in the eastern and
midland counties ; modern improvements, however, have now
generally enabled the breeder to fatttii his animals at home.
The improved Galloway is almost faultless in form, and is well
adapted for crossing, as it readily amalgamates with other breeds,
more particularly the short-horn. We have the authority and
precedent of the late Richard Booth as a guarantee of the
superior value of this cross, since one tribe, and that not the

56 Cross-Brccdiiuf Cattle.

least valuable in the invaluable Warlaby herd, trace their descent
to a cross between a red Galloway heifer and a short-horn bull.
Where only one cross is attempted the produce is hlo^hly prized
by the feeders of the south and western counties of Scotland, as
well as by salesmen at the Liverpool and other markets of the
North of England. Here, as elsewhere, the only cause of failure
has arisen from the use of inferior sires. We should have much
cause for regret if the Galloway breed, which has already been
much encroached upon by the Ayrshires, were endangered by
indiscriminate cross-breeding. It is of great importance that a
selection of the best animals, both male and female, the most
perfect in form and pure in descent, be reserved for coupling
together, and at the same time that the practice of spaying the
heifers, which is more general here than elsewhere, be discon-
tinued. A much greater number of the inferior heifers would
then be available for putting to short-horn bulls of the best kind
which, after breeding one calf, would grow much larger, and
attain a greater weight with but little loss of time, and conse-
quently be of greater value for feeding purposes than the spayed
heifer.

The head-quarters of the Ayrshire breed is a tract of country
stretching for many miles along the Frith of Clyde, which enjoys
a moist but temperate climate, well adapted to the growth both
of roots and natural grasses. Under these peculiarities of soil
and climate this breed stands unsurpassed for the purpose of the
dairy, and has within the last twenty years been much improved
with special reference to its milking capabilities ; they are of a
kindly disposition, and feed readily when tied up in the stall or
put on good pasture.

The breed has become extensively distributed throughout
Scotland, wherever dairy farming is practised to any extent.
They have also been tried in England, but with less success ;
as after the first year the soil and climate of the south produce
such a change on the organs of secretion and assimilation that
the nourishment instead of being converted into milk is deposited
on the body in the form of fat. In their native county they are now
extensively crossed with the short-horn, and the first cross gene-
rally produces good animals. Mr. Wright, of Girvan Mains, a
large dairy-farmer, crosses all his cows Avith the short-horn ;
the produce is fed off at from two and a half to three years ; the
breeding herd being maintained by the purchase of pure bred
heifers from other farmers. Mr. Wright has for several years
been a successful exhibitor of fat steers and heifers both at
Edinburgh and Glasgow, as well as at district shows. At two
and a half years old the half-bred steer weighs from 10 to
15 stones (of 8 lbs.) more than a pure Ayrshire of the same

Cross-B reeding Cattle. 57

age, both being treated alike ; but tlie heifer is inferior to
the pure breed for the yield and quality of her milk, and is
no favourite in the dairy ; the Ayrshire is also extensively put
to the Galloway, Aberdeen, and polled Angus bulls, and the
produce is very useful ; but for early maturity and fattening-
qualities nothing equals the cross with the short-horn.

In the counties of Forfar and Kincardine (forming the eastern
seaboard of Scotland) the principal geological formation, as in
Herefordshii'e, is the old red sandstone. Here both breeding
and feeding is carried on to a great extent, the soil and climate,
with the convertible system of husbandry, insuring an abundant
supply of keep at all seasons. The native breed, the black-
polled Angus, greatly resembles the Galloway, but they attain
to greater weights, due, in great measure, to their superior
treatment, being generally wintered in yards, Avith a plentiful
supply of roots. They are also particularly well adapted for
crossing with the short-horn, and furnish a great number of the
magnificent specimens of half-breds which compete for prizes at
the great fat shows throughout the kingdom. The polled cattle
of Aberdeenshire differ but little in character from the last-
named. That county lying farther to the north, and being
principally confined to the gneiss and granite formations, has
fewer natural advantages, but finds some compensation in high
farming, and the introduction of first-rate short-horn bulls. A
distinct race of cattle has thus been originated, which, for weight
and quality and early maturity, is equal, if not superior, to any
of the pure breeds of the countrv.

In consequence of the increasing attention now bestowed on
dairies throughout the eastern and north-eastern counties, great
numbers of Ayrshires have been introduced, and these are fre-
quently crossed by the native polled breeds. The first cross is
generally considered more valuable for the dairy than the native
races. They attain a greater weight Avhen fat than the Ayr-
shires, but are generally slow feeders. As breeders of cross-
breds from this part of the country, the names of Stewart, Martin,
and Knowlcs, are familiar to all who frequent our exhibitions of
fat stock, as is that of jNIcCombie as an exhibitor of the Aberdeen
and polled Angus.

The county of Fife possesses a peculiar breed of cattle, black
and white, of large size, with horns of considerable length, and
famous milkers. How the race originated cannot now be clearly
shown. From the fact that the kings of Scotland had a palace
at Falkland in this county, it is surmised that these are descended
from stock sent as a present to some monarch either from
England or from Holland, their stamp and character apparently

58 Cross- Breeding Cattle.

favouring' the latter conjecture. They are freely crossed with
the Angus, Ayrshire, and short-horn, the last-named cross being
most highly esteemed.

After this general survey, I now come to a modern instance of
deliberate and systematic cross-breeding, based upon a careful
consideration of the principles of physiology, the requirements
of our markets, our modern system of management, and the con-
sequent changes in the type, constitution, and habits of our
cattle.

In 1850, a gentleman in the Midland Counties,* an extensive
occupier of land, a first-rate judge, and experienced breeder
of short-horn stock, determined on establishing a distinct breed
by engrafting the short-horn blood on some of the other pure
races. After a careful deliberation, the West Highlander was
selected as the most suitable for the purpose. The West
Highlander, as found in his native glens of Argyleshire,
with his broad chest, springing rib, and capacious trunk, pos-
sesses in a high degree the external characteristics indicative of
a robust constitution, and a disposition to fatten readily and
rapidly. Ten carefully-selected cows were purchased, some at
Falkirk, others from well-known breeders in Argyleshire.
They were all of a red colour, inclining to the lighter or yellow
shade, and had the orange tinge of the inside of the ears and
skin, so much valued in many pure breeds, as indicating a kindly
disposition. They were all put to a pure-bred short-horn bull,
and, after having produced their second calf, were fattened off or
otherwise disposed of. Of their offspring the steers were all fed
off at from 1^ to 3 years of age, but the heifers were put to the
best short-horn bulls that could be procured, either bred by,
or descended from, the herds of Lord Spencer, Sir Charles
Knightley, Joseph Robinson, of Clifton, or of that of the late
Mr. Richard Booth. It was an interesting study in itself to
Avatch the effect of the cross with the different bulls, and it was
remarked that the Booth blood always left the clearest impres-
sion. In some cases it was difficult even for a practised eye to
distinguish the second cross from a pure short-horn ; but inva-
riably the last traces of their mountain origin were to be detected
in the length and thickness of the horns, width of the forehead,
and shortness of nose or distance from the eyes to the muzzle.
The original cows, like all mountain-breeds in a semi-wild state,
were shallow milkers, though the milk was of a very superior

* John Beasley, Esq., Chapel Brampton, Northampton,

Cross-Breeding Cattle. 59

quality. As the produce receded from the Scot and merged in
the short-horn, the quantity of milk increased Avith each cross,
yet retained much of the quality of the original dam.

FiKST Cross, Shoet-hokn and West Highland.

The first cross is inferior in size to that between the short-horn
and Aberdeen or polled Angus, and some of the other large
breeds, but for disposition to fatten economically and quality of
meat is surpassed by none. As practical illustrations of those
capabilities I may mention several cases as occurring under my
own observation. Just previous to the great Christmas market
of 1859, eight of the steers, then under three years old, were sold
at 33Z. per head to Mr. John Allday, now of the firm of Morgan
and Allday, salesmen. New Cattle Market. Those beasts had
received no extra indulgence, but were kept during the winter in
the usual way in the open yards along with other store cattle of
the same age. During the winter of 1858 their principal food
was barley-straw and straw-chaff, with a small admixture of
hay, and one bushel per head per diem of cut roots. They went
out to grass on the 20th of May, 1859, on an ordinary pasture,
where they remained till the 29th of October Avithout any extra
food ; at this date they Avere put into the stalls, from Avhence,
about the 15th of December, they Avere taken direct to the great
market. In the stalls their daily allowance of food was 1 bushel
of cut SAvedes, 8 lbs. of linseed cake, 6 lbs. of meal — half bean,
half barley ; they Avere much admired, and Avere pronounced to
be equal in quality to anything on offer that day. We had not
an opportunity of ascertaining their exact weights ; they Avere,
hoAvever, estimated by good judges to average from 125 to 130
stones of 8 lbs. each.

Second Cross; History of one Steer..

To one steer having tAvo crosses of short-horn blood more
attention Avas devoted, and a correct account was kept of every
particular of food, Aveight, &c. ; though this was by no means an
isolated case, for others of the same class made equally good
animals. This steer Avas calved April 28th, 1858, Avas alloAved
to suck his dam for 12 weeks ; he Avas then weaned, and treated
as others of the same age. During the winter of 1858-59, in
addition to the usual alloAvance of SAvedes, hay, and cut chaff, he
had 3 lbs, per diem of good linseed-cake. About the middle of
May, 1859, he, Avith others of the same age, Avas put into a
second-rate old pasture, Avhere he remained to the end of Sep-
tember, living on grass alone ; he Avas then put into a box, and

60 Cross-Breedin{j Cattle.

received daily 4 lbs. of linseed-cake and one busliel of cut roots,
with plenty of cut straw-chaff and a small modicum of hay.
On the 1st of March, 18G6, the quantity of cake Avas increased to
G lbs., and 6 lbs. of meal, bean and barley, were added. He was
sold for oOZ. on the 8th of June, 1860, to a butcher in a neigh-
bouring- village, and weighed when dressed 115 stones of 8 lbs.,
being then under twenty-six months of age.

A promising animal, with three crosses of short-horn blood,
was saved as a bull, being of a fashionable roan colour, and good
in all his points ; he was sold at ten months old, for 30/., to a
larmer in the neighbourhood, who keeps a small herd of well-
bred short-horn cows : the cross has so far been successful, the
calves look promising, are well shaped, with abundance of flesh,
and plenty of hair. Another of the fourth cross, saved as a bull,
is a promising animal of his age, but he is still under a year old ;
his quality, colour, and general appearance are those of a pure-
bred short-horn, from which he can scarcely be distinguished.

The cows and heifers have all been regfular breeders, and the

...
total number of calves reared from this family considerably

exceeds a hundred, although about four years ago they were

visited by pleuro-pneumonia, and a number of the best animals,

in spite of every effort, succumbed to the disease.

Without a single exception the stock bred has been free from
any approach to black even in the muzzle, which has been in-
variably of a light or flesh colour — a distinguishing mark of a
thrifty animal.

The first and second crosses were principally red roans, Avith
a few blood-reds. It is, however, remarkable, that of the first
cross a considerable number were white, or white with red ears ;
all the bulls used have been either red, red and white, or dark
roan.

The first and second cross retain much of the wild and rest-
less habits so characteristic of the Highlander ; and it is not
until they become more closely related to the short-horn that
they acquire his docile habits.

Cows and heifers from this herd have been exhibited from
time to time at the local cattle-shows, and have carried off prizes
when competing with pure-bred stock. Steers and oxen have in
like manner taken prizes in the classes for fat beasts — a steer,
having two crosses of short-horn, took first honours, both at
Birmingham and London, in the same year.

The beef of cross-bred cattle is now generally admitted in the
English markets to possess superior quality — as having a greater
quantity of lean than that of inost of the pui'e breeds, and also
from the fat being well mixed with the flesh or muscular parts,

Cross-Brcedinr/ Cattle. 61

besides carrying a greater quantity of meat on the more valuable
parts, and consequently presenting more roasting meat and less
offal tban most other animals. Again, as regards profit, reckoning
from birth to maturity, we may safely assert that they may be
equalled, but cannot be surpassed by any of our pure breeds for
producing an equal weight of meat at a given age. Those who
visited the Birmingham, London, and Liverpool shows for Fat
Cattle, as also the great Christmas market of Dec. 12, in 1864,
can testify that cross-bred oxen from Scotland and the North of
England fairlv distanced all competitors.

To those about to commence breeding crosses, whatever be
the race to which the cows may belong, our observation and
experience incline us to recommend short-horn sires, as their
purity can be better depended upon than that of other bulls ;
and we are fully convinced that even for the purpose of cross-
breeding, the purer the blood on the paternal side the more
clearly will excellence be stamped on tlie progeny. In Scot-
land it may be difiicult to find a sufficient number of short-
horned bulls of good pedigree to supply the increasing demand
for the purpose of crossing : in England such a difficulty will
seldom arise.

What constitutes a pure-breed animal is a point not very
clearly defined. Mr. Strafford, the editor of ' Coates's Herd-
book,' a high authority on such matters, considers that animals
which cannot show a descent for four generations from pure
bulls are ineligible for entry in the Herdbook ; and it is generally
considered that such a pedigree will suffice to produce an animal
possessing all the characteristics of his male progenitors. The
herd of crosses we have attempted to describe consists at the
present time of forty females, several of which have reached the
fourth cross, and some have been entered in the Herdbook :
those which have attained this stage possess the general cha-
racter of the improved short-horn ; they are straight in the back,
well ribbed, short in the leg, with abundance of hair, and of
very superior fjuality ; in short, in appearance they could not be
distinguished from that breed, and promise, if their manage-
ment be carried out with the same liberality and intelligence
which have hitherto been displayed, to become at no distant date
a most important and valuable breed of cattle.

Elmston Castle, Derhy.

62 Rainfall, Natural Drainage^

VI. — On Rainfall, Natural Drainage, and Subterranean Water
Storage. By Professor D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

Inteoduction.

Thk natural circulation of water through the agency of the
atmosphere and the earth is a subject of extraordinary interest
and importance to the agriculturist, and includes perhaps those
departments of meteorology and geology which are of greatest
use to the practical man. But in its practical application the
details of each particular case are so much determined by various
local circumstances that the general outline to be met with in
scientific books on the subject is not sufficient to satisfy the re-
quirements of this class of readers, whilst there is very little
special literature in our own language, and scarcely any in the
French and German languages, available for their purpose.

Materials no doubt exist, and have been partially brought
together, but observations are still wanting in many departments,
and many observations recorded have not been reduced. There
is certainly great need of information on the subject, and I will
endeavour in the present article to point out, so far as space will
allow, both what has been done and what remains to be done.*
If I can only hope to do so imperfectly, I may at any rate be
able to give useful information, and offer a few practical sugges-
tions.

The subject before us is clearly enough defined by the title.
It embraces three distinct but closely allied groups of phenomena,
each separately important and interesting, but all mutually
dependent, and all combining to form the one great subject of the
circulation of water on and within the earth. I will not preface
these details with more remarks than are strictly necessary, but
confine myself to such a general outline as may serve to connect
and illustrate them.

That matter should exist on the earth in the three forms of
solid, liquid, and gaseous or aerial, is a truth so obvious as to be
generally admitted without consideration.

Yet we may well pause to consider that without them there
could exist no such forms of life as those we are alone acquainted
with, and that without some such association the earth could
yield us no satisfactory history of the past, inasmuch as there
could be no strata of sandstone, limestone, and clay containing

* Since this article was commenced, INIr. Glaisher has undertaken to prepare a
Report on the subject of British Rainfall, which may be looked for at some early-
meeting of the British Association, The subject could not he in better hands, but
it will hardly supersede the matter 1 have here brought together, and the Report
cannot be available for some time.

and Subterranean Water Storage. 63

the remains of its former inhabitants. The whole being of the
earth, as anything more than an inert mass of inorganic matter, is
thus bound up in these varieties of the mechanical state of matter.
The varieties themselves result from the mode in which force
acts on matter, developed in one case as gravitation, in another
as heat, then again exhibited in light, or in the various forms of
electric and chemical force, and finally culminating in life itself.
The various forms of force resulting in organisation produce this
result apparently by means analogous to some of those by which
inorganic matter is influenced.

]\Iany important conclusions follow from this view of matter
and force. Geologically it excludes all possibility of connecting
the earth as it is with an earth in which matter should be
exclusively either gaseous, or liquid, or solid, and not an admix-
ture of the three. The earth may no doubt at some former
time have existed in a vaporous or liquid state, like a comet,
or like some of its fellow planets, or it may once have been
solid, resembling, perhaps, the moon, or some other bodies in
our system.

Who, indeed, can say what might not have happened with
regard to the earth that can happen to matter ? But of all this
there is not one particle of evidence in the condition of the
earth's outer crust. We may therefore dismiss all such theories,
for no rock that was ever yet seen by man has needed for its
formation any other conditions than those that exist at present ;
and we have no analogy to show that any one of these rocks
could have been formed without air, water, and earth, associated
and derived just as rocks* now are, and mutually dependent.

This is by no means a matter of mere theory. So much has
been said and written of igneous rocks and a steam atmosphere,
so imaginative are many expressions of geologists in speaking of
the earth's origin, that the general reader and even the geological
student may be excused for supposing that there is some evidence
to support them. There is absolutely none, nor can we carrv
back the history of the world by means of observation and
investigation to any period when the sun did not shine, when the
air did not float over earth and ocean, when the waves, and
tides, and currents did not keep the waters of the ocean in per-
petual movement, and dash them against the land, and when the
water was not lifted into the air, conveyed by it to the land, con-
densed and deposited there, and either carried off" by rivers,
absorbed into the earth, or re-absorbed into the atmosphere by
evaporation.

* The term rock is used here and throughout this memoir in its technical
geological sense, and is intended to include all mineral masses. Thus chalk and
even incoherent sand or clay are rocks as much as hard limestones and sandstones.

64 Raivfall, Natural Drainage,

The reader must be content to accept this statement, and the
conclusions and inferences that result from it. Without some
definite notion of the earda's structure and history the circulation
of water cannot be understood. But this history is written only
in the rocks of which its surface is made up, and that surface is
but a thin crust. This is all we have to deal with, for it includes
all that we can examine ; and it is amply sufficient for our
purposes, for as all known rocks and minerals were formed by
and with water and air, always Avithin such limits of temperature
as made a complex condition possible, this view of rocks simpli-
fies the question, and enables us to proceed at once a step
further.

I. Eainfall : ITS Distribution and Quantity.

Owing' to the form of the earth and its position and move-
ments with respect to the sun, and owing also to the fact that the
surface of the earth is only partially covered by water and
entirely by air, there is a perpetual movement of the water in its
bed and a constant circulation of air above. The circulation of
the air is effected partly by the varied influence of the sun, partly
by the motion of the earth. There are certain very important
atmospheric currents that are constant and on a very grand scale,
and many others that are variable or only periodical. Of the
former the Trade-winds are examples. The latter are familiar
to every one. With regard to the Trade-winds, we perceive but
a small part of their regularity. They are only parts of currents
that rise in the tropics, range steadily at vast elevation, and
return from the Poles in a never-ceasing circuit. Many other
currents exist, but most of them are so constantly interfered with
and localised near the earth that we regard the winds as in-
constant. Like all the great operations of nature, they obey
certain laws, and are really constant in the highest and most
important sense of the term. It is one result of the action of
these laws that within the limits of temperate latitudes there is
a region especially characterised by variable winds.

The circulation of air by currents is the cause of a grand
system of circulation of water. Air dissolves water as water
dissolves salt. It takes up a certain portion without losing its
transparency. The quantity taken up is larger or smaller accord-
ino- to the temperature, and when the temperature is lowered the
water continues in the air in a visible state as cloud. Thus,
for example, a very large quantity of water is dissolved by and
rises with the hot air that is about to commence its circuit
from the regions near the equator. This hot air gets both cooler
and less dense as it rises, and is thus gradually less and less

and SuUerranean Water Storage. 65

able to sustain so large a quantity of water. Some may sliortly
come back again in heavy showers, and part of the water lilted
is carried on in a visible form until it can no longer be retained
owing to the altered condition of the air. Visible vapour is
mist or cloud ; from mists or clouds large quantities of water
fall to the earth as rain hundreds or even thousands of miles
from the spot whence it started. As rain, it generally falls
gently on the soil. Some of it runs off in water-courses, which
in time, by union with millions of similar streamlets, become
mighty rivers, and run back to the parent ocean. Some is at
once made use of by thirsty vegetable or animal life, and is con-
verted into leaves, stems, flowers or forest-trees, or enters into
the flesh and tissues of animals by combining with carbon and
a few other solid elements. Another part sinks into the
earth.

But each part — including this last part — is greatly subdivided,
and has a distinct history. Thus, one group of those drops that
remain at the surface may trickle into a shallow pool and be re-
evaporated directly ; other drops may form part of a rivulet and
be conveyed to a deep lake ; and others, again, may return to the
sea by some river with as little delay as possible. So, again, of
that water that enters the earth the history is very varied. Such
considerations form the subject-matter of important chapters
of physical geography. The actual quantity of the rainfall in
a'' given period, and its distribution in days, months, and years,
is another inquiry altogether. The facts involved in this latter
inquiry cun only be determined by careful observation ex-
tending over a long period of time. The causes are extremely
varied, and depend on a multitude of peculiarities in the phy-
sical condition of the earth's surface. As these vary, so the
quantity and distribution vary ; no two localities are precisely
alike in this respect, and it is only as a matter of average and
approximation that we can consider the question or come to
a conclusion. It is not difficult to understand in a general way
the causes of difference, but in any particular case it is almost
impossible either to explain fully the result when we know it, or
anticipate the result by theorising.

Still it is a very important question to all practical men, as
well as a very interesting inquiry in general science, to decider
what is the average annual rainfall in a particular place or
district. Not less is it important to know the causes to which
the quantity of rainfall is due so far as they are local. The ordi-
nary or extraordinary limits within which the rainfall varies
monthly, seasonally, and annually ; the existence or non-existence
of periods of larger or smaller supply ranging over many years ;
and finally the definite and permanent changes that seem to take

VOL. II. — S. S. F

66 Rainfall, Natural Drainage,

place in the distribution or quantity of rain in a district ; tliese
are only to be determined by comparing long series of obser-
vations, and we can only enter upon the discussion of them by
accumulating, reducing and comparing all the facts known on
the subject. And here lies the difficulty. Records exist, but
unfortunately they are by no means of equal value, nor do they
always admit of exact comparison. Referring to the best of
them, however, let me endeavour to state some of the results as
clearly and usefully as may be.

The existing tabular statements of the amount of rainfall at
various stations in our own islands afford abundant matter for
consideration. Taking first the averages for ten well-observed
years, which more extended observations in a limited number
of stations warrant us in regarding as not far from a general
average, we shall find that whereas at one place, Bishops-
wearmouth in Durham, there fell on an average 16*91 inches
per annum during the period from 1st Jan., 1850, to 31 Dec,
1859, the average at Seathwaite in Cumberland during the
same time was 126'98 inches per annum, or about seven
and a half times as much. It is not difficult to explain this
difference by reference to the geographical position of the two
stations. Seathwaite receives the rain produced by the con-
densation of the warm moist winds from the Atlantic as they
are driven up the chilled and snow-clad sides of the Cumber-
land mountains. Bishops wearmouth, on the other hand, receives
the rain chiefly, if not solely, from winds already partially drained
by crossing the inountains and moors that lie between it and the
Atlantic. These are extreme cases. There are few parts of
Northern Europe where the average rainfall is below that of
Bishopswearmouth, and few places out of the tropics where it
exceeds that of Seathwaite. The results of extremely wet years
further heighten the contrast. Thus the average of the three
wet years, 1860-1862, at Seathwaite, was 164*94 inches, while at
Bishopswearmouth it amounted only to 21*66 inches, and during
the year 1862 when there fell 182'58 inches at Seathwaite, there
only fell 19*30 inches at Bishopswearmouth.

There are two other stations, one at Coniston in Lancashire,
and the other at Torosay in the isle of Mull, in each of which
the rainfall occasionally amounts to 100 inches, but these are
all very extreme cases and due to local causes.

To understand the rainfall of England, it will be convenient
to take the mean or average amount for ten years in certain
stations in different parts of the country. Thus, excluding the
stations at Seathwaite and Coniston as exceptional, we find
that the average of six stations situated in Lancashire and the
West Riding of Yorkshire, all on the west side of England,

and Suhtcrranean Water Storage.

67

Diagram I. — Illustrating the
Difference of Mean Annual
Rainfall in different Districts
of England on an average of
Ten Years, from 1850 to
1850, bot/i inclusive.

9 ^

amounted to o8"05 inches per annum during tlie years 1850-
1859 already alluded to. For nine places in Cornwall, Devon,
Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Sussex — all near the south coast ot
England — the average was 34'18 inches. For seven places in
Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Worcestershire, Shropshire, Lei-
cestershire, Derbyshire, and the middle of Yorkshire, the average
was 25*49 inches. Lastly, for seven places in Middlesex, Essex,
Norfolk, and the East Riding of Yorkshire, the average during
the same ten years was 23*70 inches. The result is repre-
sented in the annexed Diagram No. L The period assumed
was, on the whole, rather drier than
usual, but this would not much affect
the values of the averages, and relatively
they would probably exhibit no change
at all. The average of all England
during the same years, excluding Sea-
thwaite and Coniston, was 29*84 inches,
which is about the mean at Cirencester
in Gloucestershire ; and it is clear, from
a very slight consideration of these figures,
that the principal rainfall in England is
on and near the west and south coasts ;
while in the middle of England there
falls a very sensibly larger quantity of
rain than on or near the eastern coast. It
will also be evident, from a consideration
of the general form of the land, that as
the gentle slopes face chiefly towards the
east, and the steep hill-sides towards the
west, such a result is perfectly in accord-
ance with the physical configuration and
geological structure of the country. The
fact itself is well illustrated in the Cots-
wold Hills and in the main ranges of the
chalk hills, but is not less true elsewhere.
So again, the dip or inclination of the
strata being generally to the east and
south, the drainage of the country is in accordance with the main
features of its geology.

It may be Avell to mention the broad fact that Scotland and
Ireland agree generally with England in these respects. In both
there is a difference amounting to 15 inches between the rainfall
on the west and east coasts. In Ireland the south-west coast,
and in Scotland the western islands, are exceedingly wet, while
the neighbourhoods of Dublin and Edinburgh are singularly dry.
The former averaged only 21*78 inches, and the latter 24*72,

F 2

o

±--

I

o

(j8 Rainfall, Natural Drainage,

during the ten years 1850-51) ; while at Greenwich, in the same
period, the averag^e rainfall was 2428 inches.

The monthly distribution of rain throughout the whole of
England varies not less than the total annual rainfall. October
and March are, however, almost always and everywhere the
wettest months, while February and November are the least
rainy. Of the rest, April and August are wetter than the other
months not mentioned. The average fall of rain during the six
summer months is greater than that during the Avinter months in
the ratio of 6 to 5 ; but during the three warmest months, when
evaporation is greatest, the average rainfall is almost the same as
the mean monthly rainfall of the whole year. Almost every-
where in England the heaviest rains fall in October, and the
fewest heavy rains in February. In the other months there is a
great difference at different stations. Thus May and September,
which in most places have either more than, or as much as, the
monthly average, have not much more than half the average at
Seathwaite. Many other peculiarities of the same kind are
noticeable.

In a general way there is more rain in hilly than in flat dis-
tricts. This is, no doubt, partly due in England to the greater
prevalence of hilly country towards the west and south of our
island, where, on other accounts, the excess of rainfall takes
place, but it is an universal phenomenon, and results, at least
partly, from physical configuration. Much more rain, however,
lalls close to the earth than at a moderate height in the air,
therefore the rain-gauge should always be placed near the earth,
and its exact position noted and recorded, if we would make
accurate observations. At York Professor Phillips many years
ago established this fact, and found that of three rain-gauges —
one on the ground, one at 44 feet, and the other at 213 feet
above the ground — the rain collected during one year was 2 6 '71,
19*85, and 14-95 inches respectively.

At Greenwich, in 1864, there fell 16'34 inches close to the
ground ; at the height of 10 feet above the ground the quantity
was 16*09 inches; at 22 feet 4 inches only 13*85 inches; at
38 feet 4 inches 11*96 inches; and at 50 feet 8 inches, only
10*40 inches. The site of the lower gauges is about 156
feet above the sea ; of the hio-hest about 205 feet. It is certain
that the increased rainfall on hilly ground and on mountain-sides
is due to local conditions, among which the position of the sea
is one of the most important ; but there are many exceptions,
both real and apparent, to every rule that can be stated in refer-
ence to this subject.

In ordinary years the largest rainfall' in the British islands is
to be found in the Lake District of Cumberland and Westmore-

and Siilterranean Water Storage. 69

land, and in the Isle of Mull in Scotland. The west coast of
Ireland and the northernmost islands of Scotland come next ;
the south of Ireland, the western counties of Eng^land, and the
coast of Wales succeed. The middle of England is much behind,
and the east coast far more so, as will be evident from the annexed
diagram. The neighbourhood of London, though below the
general average, is by no means so dry as the counties of Norfolk,
Cambridgeshire, and Suffolk. With few exceptions, the various
stations agree in showing that local rainfalls have some relation
to the average of the whole countr}'.

The quantity and distribution of rain being dependent to a
very great extent on the peculiar physical features and the con-
dition of the surface of the country, the inquiry naturally suggests
itself whether there has been any modification of these features
in England within the last half century. During this time,
although no great changes have been wrought except in the
drying up of a few large sheets of water, much has been done to
the surface by draining and cultivating the land, and there has
also been a large increase of population, a vast development
of manufactures, and a consumption of fuel steadily increasing,
and now amounting to almost eighty millions of tons per annum.

Some years ago (in 1859) j\Ir. Glaisher suggested that the
mean annual rainfall in the neighbourhood of London was appa-
rently diminishing in quantity. This idea was met by objections
expressed forcibly enough by Mr. G. J. Symonds, and published
in the ' Proceedings of the British Meteorological Society ' for
January, 1863. The conclusion had previously been opposed
by Mr. Jamieson, who, in an Essay referring chiefly to Scotland,
but including a wider area, set forth that a small decrease at one
station was met by a corresponding increase in another, and that
the compensation was complete. Arago had previously stated
that in the neighbourhood of Paris there had been no appreciable
change for 130 years; but the records of the rainfall made so
long ago are hardly to be trusted. Many years must elapse
before the accurate rain-gauges now used at many stations in
the British islands and the Continent will have yielded a suffi-
cient collection of observations to enable us to obtain from them
such information as may settle the question finally, one way or
the other, for all parts of England.

The rain observations made at Greenwich are, beyond doubt,
the most to be depended upon of any on record. Up to the
present time (September, 1865) they include a period of fifty
years, commencing January 1, 1815, and ending December 31,
1864 ; and a careful study of them affords a reliable basis on
which an opinion can be founded. Let us endeavour to deter-
mine the facts deducible from these records.

70

Rainfall, Natural Drainage,

The mean rainfall at Greenwich for the period in question
was 25 '22 inches only. The largest rainfall was in 1824, and
amounted to 36"3 inches. The lowest was 16'3 inches, and

^

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occurred in 1864. The extreme amount of range in different
years is thus 20 inches, or more than half the maximum. The
diagram marked II. will exhibit the facts recorded in the simplest
and best manner.

From tabular statements of this nature it necessarily requires

and Subterranean Water Storage.

71

a careful and minute observation of averages to obtain trust-
worthy and decisive conclusions as to progressive change. I
will endeavour to put the case as fairly and in as varied a manner
as possible, to enable the reader to judge of the value of the
conclusion I feel bound to come to.

Estimating the mean of the period at 25*25 inches, let us first
regard as ordinary years all those in which the total rainfall was
within 5 inches on either side of this
mean. Years when the rainfall was not
within these limits may be taken as maxi-
mum or minimum years. Within the
first twenty-five years of the period under
consideration there were eighteen within
the assumed limits of ordinary years,
nine during which the fall was more, and
nine during which it was less than the
mean. There were five years of maxima
and two of minima. During this period
the mean fall was 26*69, or 1*44 inches
above the general mean of the fifty years.
Within the succeeding period of twenty-
five years the mean fall was 23'75 inches,
or nearly 3 inches less than in the first
twenty-five. Fifteen of the years may be
regarded as ordinary, but in these the
rainfall was above the mean only four times, and below it eleven
times. Only three times during the period did the rainfall
amount to a maximum, or exceed 30'25 inches, but as many as
seven times it must be regarded as minimum, the fall not
amounting to 20"25 inches.

If we next divide the whole into periods of ten years, we find
a result which is best expressed in the above Diagram (HI.) : —

But it affords a much fairer estimate of the average if we
divide the fifty years into nine decennial periods, commencing at
intervals of five years. We then obtain the following result : —

[AGRAM III. — Mean of the
Rainfall during the Five De-
cennial Periods from 1814 fo
1864, both inclusive.

-t< ■* ■* -l! -H
fN M -* in to
CO 00 00 00 00

^ i.o in in lo
— 1 (?> CO -+i in
CO 00 00 CO 00

In. " - '^ '-' ^

•29

28

27

\

26

\

25

\

24

V

r\

s

23

\

22

No

Means of the Eainfall during

Decennial Periods,

commencing at intervals of

Five Years, from 1815 to 1864

inclusive.

Years.

Inches.

1815—1824.

Mean annual rain

all 29-17

1820—1829

28-25

1825—1834

24-51

1830—1839

24-60

1835—1844

24-95

1840—1849

24-25

1845—1854

24-25

1850—1850

23-15

1855—1864

>j

22-44

72

Rainfall, Natural Drainage,

l^hese facts are important, and tell their own story so far as
averages can do. They seem to show a steady, and even con-
siderable decrease in the amount of rain, in whichever way we
take the periods. If we go a step further, and divide the period

into ten of five years, the result

T)ixGiixya\\-MeanrunnfalldurlmjPa^^^^^ js nearly similar, although we

of Fire Years, from 181-i to 18Gi m- , -^ . ' ^• •, c

clusice then perceive a peculiarity ot

the distribution, which can be
best seen by the eye in a dia-
gram. In these short intervals
the diminution is not regular,
but there are alternate maxima
and minima ; the general result
being a decrease, as already
shown in the longer periods.

This tendency to alternate
maxima and minima is, how-
26 ever, shown much more clearly
25 and decidedly if we compare
g , the rainfalls of the various years
placed before the eye as in the
preceding diagram (No. II.),
"' It will be evident that there is
a tendency to a succession of
maxima and minima, or rain-
falls alternately above and below
the average, and also of groups of maximum and minimum years.
Thus there is a group of maxima between 1814 and 1824, a group
of means succeeded by two maxima and one minimum thence
to 1841, and more recently small groups of maxima and minima.
It will also be evident that the tendency during the whole period
has been towards fewer and smaller maxima, and more, as well
as lower, minima.

Both electric and magnetic storms or disturbances in the elec-
trical state of the earth, as exhibited in the atmosphere, affect the
rainfall in a very decided manner. It has been found of late
years that these have reference to the dark places on the surface
of the sun, which undergo a change in cycles of about eleven
years. During such periods, then, it might be expected that the
rainfall should be subject to useful comparison. Several cycles
require to be compared before any conclusion of value can be
arrived at ; but availing ourselves of the records of half a century
we shall at least have a starting-point. The result is shown in
Diagram No. V. It agrees precisely with all that has been
hitherto said. It is even more decided, and presents, as will be
seen, a very regular curve.

Tn.

en

CO

\o

CO

-H
CI

CO

ci

CI

00
CO

CO
00

o

CO

CT)
CO
CO

l-'5
CO

CO

CO

o

CO

CO

-t"
oo

CO

CO
n

CO

(A
CO

ID

CO

6

to

CO

31

SO

f{

29

\

23

4

\

27

I

2G

—

\

—

25

A

24

—

\

V

/

X,

■\

23

a

\

/

22

-V

21

—

21

and Suhtcrrancan Water Storage.

We must now return to Diagram II., wliicli is very im-
portant and instructive. It shows, as I have already pointed
out, that there is, on the whole, a ten-
dency to alternate maxima and minima Diagram _\ .—J/ean Rainfall
-.•' • r 11 /? i • • aurinn J<it:e Ferioas of Maq-

m the ramtalJ, first in successive years, net ic Disturbance, from isi 3

and next in cycles. These cycles are to 1858 induske.

variable, ranging from six to twelve ^^ ^ ^ ^

years. But it is clear that during the 2 2 2 2

last half century the vears and cvcles

of heavy rainfall have been growing

fewer and smaller, and those of minima

more frequent, while all the averages are

lower. Thus there may be said to be

sixteen periods of different duration,

measuring from minimum to minimum,

during the fifty years. The total in the

years of heaviest rainfall lately has never

exceeded the totals of half a century ago.

The total rainfall during the dry years

lately has been very much below the

smallest rainfalls of former times, and

has not been at all compensated bv the increase due to the wet

years 1852 and 1860,

Exhibited to the eye, the reduction of the rainfall is recognised
in Diagram II. rather by the general tendency of the curve to
decline towards the right, than bv any regular difference or group
of differences. There is a certain regularity even in the jumps
that are to be observed from one year to another, and the rarity
of the occasions on which the mean rainfall is the actual fall of
the year serves to illustrate the nature of the law governing the
distribution.

There Avould seem to be nothing gained b\' assuming other
periods for comparison. I have, however, taken the averages for
three and seven years, but the results are of the same general
nature, and hardly deserve recording in separate diagrams. The
triennial period is too shor.t to give valualDle results. The sep-
tennial shows as follows : —

Means of Rainfall at Greenwich during succeeding periods of Seven and
Fourteen Years, from 1815 to 1863 inclusive.

of 14 Years.
. ■ Years. Inches. Inches.

1815—1821, Mean rainfall 28-7 .

i 28-3
1822—1828 „ 27-9

t 20-1
1829—1835 „ 24-3 i

74 Rainfall, Natural Drainage,

Mean
of 14 Years.
Years. Inches. Inches.

1829—1835. Mean rainfall 24-3

1836—184:2
1843—1849
1850—1856
1857—1863

t-3 \ o

24-1 S
23-8 (
23-7 }

4-7
24'G

24-

It will be observed that the means of the fourteen years, taken
at intervals of seven years, are singularly regular, decreasing
each period without exception, though by a small amount. As
the years 1864 and 1865 have been particularly dry, it is evident
that no alteration in the way of increase of the averages can l)e
looked for at present.

I do not think it can be necessary to carry the tabulation of
the Greenwich rainfall any further. It seems to me fully proved
that there has been during the past fifty years a diminution in
the quantity of rain, at least in the south-east of England, and
in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. I think also it is proved
that this diminution has been on the whole gradual ; wet years,
as usual, alternating with dry years, but the wet years not gene-
rally so wet, and the dry years generally drier as time has
advanced. The form of the curve, though extremely zigzag,
seems to indicate this, and the calculations of averages extending
over several years unquestionablv points to this as the general
rule. The period of fifty years, though not very considerable, is
sufficient both to yield an average and also to justify a deduction,
especially when this deduction is in conformity with the observa-
tions both personal and recorded of those who have paid attention
to the subject. The locality is also not unfavourably placed.

It is important to observe that this difference in the rainfall
corresponds with, and is accompanied by, an apparent change
both in the mean temperature and the distribution of the tem-
perature in England. Mr. Glaisher has established the fact that,
within the last hundred years the mean annual temperature has
risen 2° Fahr. During that time the winter months have become
much warmer in proportion, and the summer months not cooler.
Thus the January temperature has increased as much as 3°.
Such an alteration alone inay be regarded as sufficient to produce
a change of climate in many important respects, both in the
rainfall and in the fitness of England now for the favourable
production of many plants not before grown. The increased
temperature would naturally tend to diminish the rainfall, other
things remaining the same.

and Subterranean Water Storage. 75

It will no doubt be said that even if the rainfall at Greenwich
has diminished durinf^ the last half-century, the result may be
due to purely local causes, and may perhaps not necessarily
involve a similar result in other parts 'of England. It may be
due to the immediate influence of the metropolis, for as far
as one can in any way estimate the result of the accumulation of
a large multitude of human beings within a limited area, and
the consumption by them or for them of enormous quantities of
fuel, the result might be to check the rainfall. The augmenta-
tion of temperature appears to be uniform throughout the country,
and not local, and this cause must certainly everywhere act in
the same direction, if not to the same extent, and if it have
any influence, tend to the general diminution of rainfall.

It is much to be regretted that long series of observations on
rainfall made with trustworthy instruments can only be obtained
for a very small number of stations. This great need is now in
the way of being supplied. Commencing with 1850, there are
upwards of thirty stations in England, fifteen in Scotland, and
four in Ireland, in all of which good records are kept, but
the time is as vet somewhat too short to justify important
generalisations. The mean of the fifteen years, 1850-1864, is
certainly too low for all the stations, if we assume the absolute
mean to be that obtained from a long series of years. Still with
proper corrections these fifteen years are valuable for purposes of
comparison. For Greenwich the result thus obtained is 23*4
inches, or 7^ per cent, less than the mean. It does not, of
course, follow that this diminution is regular and uniform, or that
it is certain to continue, but as by referring to Diagram No. II. it
will be seen that during the last fifteen years at Greenwich there
occurred two of the largest rainfalls of any years within the fifty,
and that in other respects there were few extraordinary seasons,
except, perhaps, that of 1864, we may safely assume it to have
some foundation in fact.

I have found extreme difficulty in obtaining reliable data on
which to base a definite proof of a gradual diminution of rain-
fall in various districts in England. The published reports of
the Registrar-General, although valuable and interesting, are
not absolutely continuous for the same places, nor is it always to
be known whether the rain-gauge used was to be depended on,
or whether it was situated near to or at some distance above the
ground. This is especially the case with the older observations.
Since 1848 the number of the stations has been increasing, but
till very recently there has been little harmony of observing, and
occasional interruptions in the record diminish the Aalue of the
lists. For purposes of comparison, however, the following dia-
gram (No. VI.), prepared from such records as exist will, I think.

76

Rainfallj Nalural Drainage,

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establish the fact, that there is a general accordance in each of
the principal rainfall districts with that of Greenwich, in so far

and Subterranean Wafer Storage. 77

as tlie question at issue is concerned. If the reader will carry
his eye along the line of marks indicating the rainfall of each
year in each place named, and also compare the position of the
marks with those in Diagram No. II. for the same year, he
will perceive a general accordance. If he will compare the
different marks he will see that with the usual tendency to maxima
and minima, there seems equally clear proof of diminished rain-
fall at least in these localities. The localities themselves are
not indeed the best that could have been selected. I should have
greatly preferred stations more typically representing the different
parts of our island, but the materials for such a calculation, if
they exist, are not at my disposal. I should also willingly have
made the comparison run over a longer period, but for this
also the materials have not been obtainable.

It is at any rate certain * that the rainfall during the ten years
1850-1859 was five per cent, lower than the mean annual rainfall
of the fifty years ending 1861, if we exclude the small district
of the lakes, which is altogether exceptional. It is equally
certain that although 1862 was slightly above the mean, the two
succeeding years (1863 and 1864), and the year now just con-
cluded, 1865, have been very much below and have been excep-
tionally dry. And the study of the carefully prepared and
complete tables, now in course of publication by Mr. Symonds,
shows that where rain-gauges are similarly placed, and can fairly
be compared, they all point to the same general conclusion.
But there is still much to be done, and a vast amount of infor-
mation to be collected and tabulated before the subject can be
fully discussed in all its bearings. A succession of years of
short water-supply is a very serious event, and very injurious to
the well-being of any country. In England, where the supply
is usually somewhat large, and there exists a large subterranean
accumulation, it might be expected that the evil would be less
felt than on the continent of Europe, but practically this is not
the case. The general style of cultivation turns upon crops
the majority of Avhich are calculated to endure, and even to
benefit by, very frequent rain and a comparatively large rainfall,
and we are sometimes exposed to great suffering, not only by
diminished quantity, but by an altered mode of distribution. It
is only very lately that good observations concerning the rate of
distribution have been made, and it is as yet too soon to deduce
general conclusions. The number of rainy days in each month,
and in the year, might, one would think, be decided easily
enough, but even in this matter there has hitherto been a want of
system that render observations nearly worthless. Thus, while

* British Association Reports for 1862, p. 296 (G, T. Symonds, Esq.)

78 Rainfall, Natural Drainar/c, S^-c.

one person considers every day rainy on which any rain falls,
another requires that his rain-gauge shall register something,
however small, and a third, that there shall be a definite and
stated quantity. It is evidently quite impossible to compare
statements where there is so little agreement as to the terms
made use of. But in this again there is now a spirit of im-
provement, and after the lapse of a few years the agriculturist
will know better than he can do at present, both whether the
climate of England is really changing, and if so whether the change
is for good or evil.

The mean rainfall for the whole of the British islands is so
different from the means for England, Scotland, and Ireland
taken separately, and the mean of all England is also so different
from the means of certain districts taken separately, that a
collection of observations made over a large district cannot safely
be tabulated together without great precaution being taken to
avoid error. It is, indeed, specially necessary to define natural
districts, with a knowledge of the proximate conditions, and with an
express view to this branch of meteorology. The districts assumed
at present are twenty-three in number : eleven in England, eight
in Scotland, and four in Ireland. So far even as England and
Scotland are concerned, these are certainly very imperfect, and
Ireland must undergo re-arrangement as soon as the state of the
observations will permit. These divisions, however, rather refer
to geographical position than to similar physical conditions.
The total number of stations at which observations are now
made is very large.

It has often happened that a year of drought in many large
tracts of the United Kingdom has been a year of excessive rain-
fall in others, but for this there have generally been assignable
reasons. More usually the causes producing exceptional years
m^ust be looked for from a distance, and affect large districts of
Europe as well as the British islands. One general law of
rainfall, however, seems to obtain in every part of the land of the
north temperate zone, in which records have been carefully kept
for a considerable time ; and although England gives somewhat
extreme examples of the operation of this law, and may even seem
sometimes exceptional, the general tendency of the observations
proves the existence of a considerable amount of harmony and
inter-dependence.

If, then, it be the case, as seems very probable, that a diminution
of rainfall is taking place in England, it is evident that the
cause for such a result may be local, and the result of human in-
fluence and the cultivation of the land. On the other hand the
cause may be cosmical ; it may affect all Europe, and be con-
nected with other changes of various kinds, such as the elevation

The Poultry of France. 79

of land, the shallowing of certain large seas, and the result of
that modifjing force which never ceases to act, but of whose
mode of action we know so little. The change of temperature
or rainfall: only lately suggested as a possibility in England, may
be part of a far greater change that has been affecting our climate,
not only since the glacial period of geologists, but since the
earth first began to exist as a fit habitation for civilized man.

-a

{To he continued.)

Vll. — Tlie Poultry of France. (From materials furnished by
the 'Journal d'Agriculture Pratique.') By P. H. Freee.

In the spring of 1864 a new feature was added to the celebrated
exhibitions of fat animals at Poissy, by the announcement of
prizes and medals to be awarded to the best fat poultry. This
led to a fair amount of competition, but especially brought for
the first time upon the metropolitan stage some provincial
celebrities which had hitherto been attracted towards the Lyons
market. The success of this new effort was mainly due to the
strenuous exertions of Count Le Hon, Avho took special care that
his own district. La Bresse (in Burgundy), should be worthily
represented. La Bresse consequently had far the largest entry,
and quite eclipsed its rivals, so that its poultry rose 25 per cent.
in value.

A stir was thus created, and, on the representations made to
him, the Minister of Agriculture instituted a special Show for
fat poultry at Paris, selecting the following month of December
as, on the whole, the most convenient time for such an exhibition.
Gold medals, together with a sum of 160/,, were to be awarded
to winners of first prizes, and medals of silver and bronze as
second and third prizes.* The fowls were distributed into
five classes : La Bresse, Houdan, La Fleche, Normandy, and
" All other breeds ; " the same medals were assigned to each
class, which it was proposed to divide into two sections, one for
capons, the other for " poulardes."

In December, 1864, the event came off — 2000 head of poultry
of various kinds were exhibited in 500 lots, of these about 1500
were fowls: 600 from La Bresse, 200 Houdan, 200 Norman,
150 La Fleche, »S:c., all killed and prepared for cooking.

On this occasion the jury was composed of two country
gentlemen, three officials of the agricultural department, three

* The show included turkeys, geese, ducks, but this paper treats only of the
fowls.

80 The Poultry of France.

farmers, and four salesmen or poulterers. La Bresse kept the
lead, gaining, after a struggle with La Fleche, the gold medal
for the best fowls of any class, and receiving ten prizes and as
many medals for capons and poulardes (exhibited in separate
classes),^against six or seven prizes awarded to several of the
competing breeds for mixed classes.

The proceedings did not terminate with the award of the
prizes ; for at the Agriculturists' monthly dinner held during
the show, the poultry became the leading feature, and the
foremost agriculturists in Fiance were called upon to decide
■practically on the comparative merits of two breeds — those of
La Bresse and of Normandy. Fowls were discussed in every
sense both during and after dinner. Their feeding, cost, age,
market price were enlarged upon by keen advocates with a view
to giving prominence to the peculiar merits of their respective
favourites ; the loss of weight occasioned by various modes of
cookery came at last under discussion, and the cjuestions mooted
became too subtle and various to be decided without an
adjourned meeting and more elaborate tests. At this dinner,
speaking of the " poularde," M. Reynal, the naturalist, denied
that the pullet's ovary can be removed, and maintained that a
" poularde " is just what we call a pullet, a view which as we
shall see further on is endoi^sed by high practical authority.
M. de Kergolay, when speaking of his IN' orman fowls, explained
that they were fed on a paste made of buckwheat, oats and
barley in equal proportions, and had daily two drinks of water
mixed with flour or sweet milk. He asserted that the chickens
served up were only three months old, the capons six months,
and the latter were sold at four to five francs a-piece. His
remarks as to age led to some discussion.

At the dinner on the 26th of January, 1865, the grand tourna-
ment was renewed, and some Houdan breeders claimed to enter
the lists against M. de Kergolay's Normans, and M. Le Hon's
Bressians, the former competitors — to say nothing of Southdown
mutton, a leporide, &c,, presented by others among the guests.

M. de Lavergne, who was for the second time in the chair, gave
the toast of the evening, " A la poule au pot," recalling an
aspiration of Henri Quatre, and glancing in the following lines
at the obstacles which have hitherto beset its attainment —

Enfin la poule au pot sera done bientot uiise,

On doit au moins le presumer ;
Car depnis deux cents ans qu'on nous I'avait promise

On n'a cesse de la plumer.

The dishes were too numerous, and the dicasts too much
dispersed and excited to come to a formal verdict, and for the
sake of harmony the chairman was glad to postpone giving

The Ponjtnj of France.

81

judgment, but much and varied information was elicited,
especially as to the differences between the weights of the fowl
alive, when plucked and trussed, or lastly, cooked and served up.
In these days, when our supplies of meat are so fearfully
threatened, any hints that bear upon the economy of feeding
animals, or ■preparinc) that food for the table, deserve our most
serious attention.

Five specimens were selected from each of the three rival
breeds for special comparison, and were weighed before and
after being prepared for the cook, and also when roasted. An
experiment to show the comparative waste from roasting in the
open air, or " brazing," that is, cooking in a covered vessel, had
been contemplated, but I do not find a record of any such results.

The average weight of these lots were as follows : —

La Bresse.

Houdan.

Xormamiy.

Unprepared

Prepared for the cook

Dressed (apros la cxiissou)

lbs. ozs.
G 12
5 5i

O o 3

o oj

lbs. ozs.
5 4
4 3
2 loj

lbs. ozs.

4 11
3 14
2 12i

Or more precisely the

loss per

cent, was as

follows : —

La Bresse.

Houdan.

NormandJ^

In. preparing for cook

20-98
40-68

52-51

20-32

28-83

44-32

17-58

In cookiu'"''

28-42

Total loss per cent.

40-95

The advocates of La Bresse would remind us that the greater
loss in their fowl is not to be set down as pure waste, as there
is probably a greater amount of gravy, which has a certain
value.

The Normandy chickens are stated by M. de Kergolay to
have been younger than their rivals, and on that account to have
lost less weight, since the fatting process had not been carried so
far in their case. But the Houdan breed are also very precocious.
Those hatched with the new year being ready for market by the
middle of April, after three weeks of fatting on barley-meal
moistened in milk, "bolted " three times a day without drink,
the cost of food being \s. to Is. od.; these chickens are reared
among woods, where they are to be seen picking up much insect
food, kept in droves of 300 or 400. They are mostly hatched
under hen-turkeys.

YOL. II. — S. Si G

82 The Poultry of France.

Economics in reference to Poultry.

When attention had been thus directed to poultry at gatherings
over which M. de Lavergne presided, larger and graver inquiries
followed as a matter of course. The chief authority on agri-
cultural statistics in France (from whose countersign, even in
England our random "guesses at truth" in this department get
some sort of warranty for being gravely announced as " fact "),
at once took up the larger aspect of the subject, in which
M, Barral had to a certain extent anticipated him.

To the number of the Journal d'Agriculture Pratique, for
January 5, 1865, M. de Lavergne contributed a paper on the
Importance of Poultry in France, from which I shall venture to
borrow largely.

He therein shows that in 1840 no notice was taken of poultry
in the statistics of the empire ; in 1858 it was stated incidentally
that the proceeds amounted to 88 million francs (3,500,000/.),
derived half from poultry proper, and half from eggs and
feathers, an estimate much below the mark, as he proceeds to
show.

With reference to eggs there are accurate accounts by which
that estimate may be approximately tested. First, the value of
the export trade, 24 million francs ; secondly, the consumption
at Paris, equivalent to 12 million francs: in all, 36 millions
— leaving only 8 millions for all the rest of France, even if the
feathers are quite left out of the account. Such an estimate is
therefore quite inadmissible.

Since the population of Paris is one-twentieth of that of all
France, at Paris ratcsihe total value would be 240 million francs.

M. Lavergne, however, admitting that the consumption per head
in the provinces is less than at Paris, considers it may be fairly
set at rather more than half as great ; and that the eggs, which at
Paris are worth 60 francs per 1000, average 40 francs per 1000 in
the country. He thus obtains a total of 100 million francs, or with
the export, 125 millions as the annual value of French eggs, and
considers this estimate to be under the truth. As to the poultry,
it is harder to generalise. That sold in Paris at 1 franc per lb. is
choice and dear : in the country it is not so much in use, and
cheaper. On the whole, he concludes that the poultry may, like
the eggs, be valued at 125 million francs (5,000,000/.) ; a result
sufficient to provoke further and more precise investigation, for
his estimates only profess to be tentative and approximate. At
this rate the consumption amounts to 5s. per head for the whole
of the population.

For Paris a more exact account is kept, which exhibits very
striking results. The value of the poultry and game together

Tlie Poultry of France. 83

consumed in tliat city rose from 560,000/. in 1852, to 800,000Z.
in 1862 ; and that of the eggs from 246,000/. to 480,000/. It is
estimated that there is about five times as much poultry as game
consumed. The population of the capital had meanwhile in-
creased by 300,000 souls. It is calculated that prior to 1789,
the Parisians consumed annually 8 lbs. per head of game and
poultr}', but in 1862, 30 lbs : a very significant index of increased
wealth and prosperity !

The next point for consideration is the distribution of this rural
wealth, i. e. which departments are most and which least noted
for breeding fowls. A long string of names of departments will
never speak to a foreigner with the same significance as those
genuine old landmarks the Provinces, so it will be sufficient to
state that of the twenty leading departments, eleven encircle and
supply Paris ; with these two other departments, Calvados and
Eure-et-Loire, may perhaps best be classed ; " Le Nord " and
Pas de Calais have a large home consumption to meet ; two depart-
ments supply Lyons, and the remaining five are in the valley of
the Garonne, where both soil and climate are so favourable that
chickens form part of the common food of the inhabitants. As
a rule the districts that grow buckwheat are famous for poultry ;
not so, those which grow rye.

It further appears that the export has been quadrupled within
ten vears. M. Barral when calling attention to the statistics of
1852, thus discussed by Lavergne, had further stated the total
value of the animal produce of France at 112,000,000/.

Houdan Fowls and Trade.
These statistical inquiries were followed up by a more detailed
inquiry by j\I. Barral into the sale of the Houdan poultry in the
department Seine-et-Oise. The official returns for the three
dstricts which rear these fowls are as follow : —

Poultry. Eggs and Feathers.

£. £_

Arrondissement of Mautcs 12,593 .... 9,761

Arrondissement of Dreux 8,937 .... 7,516

Arrondissement of Nogent 2,278 .... 2,80-i

23,808 20,081

or in round numbers the chickens sold may be set at 24,000/.

But a private return by M. Delafosse values the fat chickens sold

in the three leading market-towns as follows : —

£.

Hondan (chief market in Mantes) 76,800

Dreux 96,000

Nogent 67,200

Total 240,000

G 2

84 The Poultry of France.

a snm ten times as large as the official returns assis^n to the whole
of the three " arrondissements," Of this sum 136,000/., accord-
ing' to M. Delafosse, is paid by the purveyors of Paris to three
communes alone in these proportions : —

£.

Goussainville 64,000

Saint Liibinde la Haye 60,000

Havelu ..' 12,000

136,000

The remainder is drav/n from other communes or purchased
by poulterers of Versailles, St. Germain, tScc. The inference
drawn from the comparison of these two statements is that M. de
Lavergne is quite within the mark when he multiplies the
official return by three.

The Management of Fowls.

To get an insight into the general management of poultry in
France, our best course will be to state in detail how some of the
most noted breeds are kept by breeders of the greatest experience,
that we may learn from a comparison what is essential to success
or worthy of our imitation ; bearing in mind that if we leave
the beaten track in management, half measures will be of no
avail : Nature's ways are very complete after their kind, and if
we strike out a new line we must use much intelligence, vigi-
lance, care, and method, or else we may fail egregiously.

An Account of La Bresse and its Poultry.

La Bresse, which now constitutes the " arrondissement " of
Bourg in the department of Ain, extends from the banks of the
Saone eastward to the spurs of the Jura, and consists of three
very distinct districts. The western district joining the Saone
is populous (having 97 inhabitants to 100 acres), the lands,
which mostly belong to the occupiers, are Avorth froin 80/. to
lOOZ. per acre, more than half being in excellent pasture, and
much stock is kept ; in the district on the extreme east, adjoining
. the mountains, the population (23 to 100 acres) is alert, hard-
working, and frugal, but hardly lives at ease ; there are 100
acres of arable to 22 of meadow, for which the vineyards are but
a poor substitute ; much of the land is still waste.

The central region (which includes the towns of Bourg and
Coligny) is in most respects midway between the other two ;
most of the soil is reclaimed or on the point of being so, and
the rents (now 24^. to 32^. per acre) have doubled since the
old French Revolution. No region has had greater difficulties to
surmount than this, none has combated them more vigorously*

The PoiiUrij of France. 85

The land was flat and impermeable, destitute of lime, covered
with stajT^nant pools of water, and the roads were proverbially
l)ad. To o^et rid of the water, the arable fields have with
incalculable toil and perseverance, been raised at the middle so
as to slope to the four borders, and intersected by a network
of open drains at right angles one to the other. Leases some
centuries old contain covenants that the farmer shall cart 2000 to
3000 cartloads of earth yearly. The work seems to have been
completed in the early part of the eighteenth century. Alter
this beds of marl were found and applied generally to the land ;
since 1836 the roads haA'e been set to rights.

Alternate husbandry with crops of roots and clover followed,
stolen green crops were procured ; and this peculiarity caught the
special attention of M. de Lavergne, that here alone is the growth
of maize combined with that of buckwheat.

La Bresse is much given to I'attening animals on corn, whether
they be oxen, pigs, or poultry; all of which find a good market
at Lyons.

These introductory remarks have more to do with our subject
than may at first sight appear. The conduct of the Bi'essian
peasant in rearing his poultry is quite of a piece with his inde-
fatigable and enlightened perseverance in other respects, and it
we would share his success we must imitate his virtues.

There is distinct evidence in ancient leases that from about
the year 1700 the fatting of poultry was an established and
growing practice. By a lease dated 1694 the proprietor is to be
furnished with fat capons : in another lease are reserved two
chapons pailles — straw-coloured, i. e. fatted.

By the end of the eighteenth century, the districts had estab-
lished its reputation for capons and " poulardes ; " about the same
time, in spite of restrictive covenants, the growth of maize became
general, for consumption by oxen and pigs as well as poultry.

The fowls of La Bresse have certain features which clearly
distinguish them from other breeds of the neighbourhood. They
are above the average size, short legged, small boned, the
plumage white, with some few spots of grey. The comb is
single, straight, and indented. They have four toes on the leg,
Avhich is brown and smooth ; the skin is fine and the flesh
delicate and savoury.

The hen begins to lay in February, and for a month or six weeks
lays daily, then three or four times a Aveek, till she has laid
about 160 e":2"s, besides rearins; two or three broods.

Cocks are changed continually ; local experience confirms the
general opinion that the produce of joung males fatten the most
readily.

The first broods come off in March, the earliest chickens

86 The Poultrij of France.

appear at market at the bes^inning' of May — tlaey then, at two
months okl, weigh 2 lbs. and sell for 2 to 2j francs.

The chickens when young are fed on a paste made of skim-
milk, bran, and potatoes, boiled and mashed ; when older they
have tail corn or buckwheat. The " pillettes " which are to
become " poulardes " are put into the coup at the age of three to
three and a half months ; the capons at four months. In the
extreme cold of winter the fatting process occupies three or four
weeks longer than at other times.

A fat poularde of La Bresse at four or five months weighs
6 lbs,, a capon six months old, 8 to 10 lbs. Making capons, is
a trade followed by certain women Avho travel about ; an incision
is made with scissors by the side of the anus. The comb will
soon show whether the operation has been perfectly or incom-
pletely performed. In the latter case the comb swells, or if it
has been previously cut, grows again : in such case the fowls
lose one-fifth of their value at market, for the capon not only
fattens faster but has more white and delicate flesh.

The fatting goes on in a closed and dark chamber ; each fowl
has a small box allotted to it, and is kept almost motionless.
The food given is a mixture of the meal of white maize and of
buckwheat, moistened with skim-milk. The poultry-woman
takes three or four between her knees, opens the beak with her
left hand, and inserts a pellet with her right. After three or
four weeks of fatting they are killed by bleeding them at the
palate : they are carefully plucked at once, and then wrapped in
a piece of fine linen steeped in milk, and fastened on with a
piece of string : this is kept on until they are sold.

Their whiteness, fine grain, and rounded form, create great
demand. The best specimens are bought on the premises by pur-
veyors, who despatch them to various parts of France, Germany,
Switzerland, and Italy. The home markets have a weekly supply
of some thousands throughout the winter, weighing from 2 to
6 lbs. apiece. Several communes realize more than 80Z. per
week for four or five months for their poultry. The price varies
with the season, and is highest about New Year's Day, especially
if the weather is cold, and admits of carriage to a distance.

The general run of prices at Bourg Market is —

s. d. s. (I.

For fowls, half- rat, weigliin<j; 3 lbs. ,. 2 6 to 3 4

' 4 1bs, ,, .. 4 „ 5
Choice specimens : —

Poulardes, 6 lbs. (iiett) 7 „ 8

Capons, 8 lbs S „ 10

10 lbs 12 „ 14 6

Very choice capons sometimes make as much as 1/. apiece.

The Poultry of France. 87

During the last tnenty years the price has not varied mate-
rially, but the sale has at least tripled.

On every farm poultry is fatted to a certain extent, but the
trade in choice specimens is, in some measure, confined to small
proprietors or farmers in certain communes on the borders of
La Bresse and Revormont. One of these " Chamhriers " will sell
Ijetween September and March 200 to 300 fowls, half-fat, or
prime-fat specimens, making- of his poultry alone from ol. to
nearly 5Z. per acre of his occupation.

All do not succeed alike even when favourably circumstanced,
for certain families and farms enjoy a special reputation ; but
success generally depends on having the breed quite pure. Cross-
breeding has been tried at various times to increase the size or
improve the quality of the race, but these attempts proved
failures. When a cross with the far-famed Cochins was tried
there was a gain in size, but a loss in delicacy and flavour, so that
this cross is now quite interdicted. Any fowl that shows the
least sign of cross-breeding by a yellow tinge, or even by having
scales on the legs, loses at once one-fifth or one-sixth of its value
at market. These attempts have served at least to establish the
value of the breed, and the importance of maintaining its purity.

In short, their delicate mould, early maturity", and readiness to
fatten, make them the short-horns of the poultry-yard, with this
advantage over their bovine rivals — that the quality of the flesh
is first-rate, as various renoAvned epicures have testified. Until
lately the poultry of La Bresse was little known or appreciated
at Paris, though for forty years it has been exported to St, Peters-
burg.

The breed is hardy, and will adapt itself to all parts of
France. But the fatting trade is not so accommodating. To
insure success not only the pure breed and the proper food
(white maize and buckwheat) must be procured, but the skill
and the habits handed down from one generation to another
among the farmer's of La Bresse must be naturalized and fol-
lowed up.

Such is the evidence of ]VL Dubost, the able advocate of this
breed of poultry.

The Poultry of La Fleche.

With the preceding narrative we may compare an account
of twenty years' experience in fatting the breed of La Fleche by
Mdlle. Millet Robinet, a lady who appears to be the author of a
Manual on Poultry, and a high authority on the subject.

As a preliminary she clears up the meaning of a " poularde,"
assuring us that it has never been operated upon in any way,
and thus describes a good specimen : —

88 The Poultry of France.

" The Poularde should be (1) five or six months old ; (2)
virgin; (o) never have laid an egg; (4) have white ficsh under
the wings ; (5) the eyes under the lid should be circled with
red ; (6) the claws should be short, the rump and shoulders large ;
(7) it should be in fair condition when put up to fat."

Since Mdlle. Robinet considers " cramming " the most efTcctual
and economical means of fattening, that alone is described.

This involves having sparred coops, in which each fowl has its
own compartment. The coop is a long narrow box in white wood,
set on legs Ih foot high : the outer walls and partitions are close
boarded, and the bottom only is made with rounded spars 1^ in. in
diameter, running lengthways of the coop, on which the fowls
perch, their dung falling through the bars. The top consists of
a sliding door, nearly as wide as the compartment, by which the
chickens are taken in or out. The partitions are 8 inches apart,
so that the fowl cannot turn itself round. The length of each
box may be regulated by circumstances, care being taken that
the attendant has room to pass along and to sit down ; and
furthermore, that cocks, capons, and poulets, or the lean and the fat
lots be not mixed up indiscriminately. If fowls of different sexes
are in close proximity, though nothing beyond vocal relations be
established between them, the fattening process will be delayed :
or again, fowls of different degrees of fatness should not inhabit
the same box, because their rations will differ, and the new
comers will disturb the older settlers by their noise.

Young cocks will fatten, though not so readily as capons ; their
flesh is somewhat inferior in delicacy to that of capons, and yet
more so to that of pullets.

The floor below the boxes is covered with ashes or dry earth
to catch the droppings, which are removed every two days with
a scraper. The dung is equal in value to guano, and should be
preserved from waste and moisture in old casks.

Fcedinr/. *

The best food for fatting fowls is buckwheat meal, " bolted "
quite fine. This is kneaded up with sweet milk till it gets the
consistency of baker's dough ; it is then cut up into rations about
the size of two eggs, which are made up into " rolls " about the
thickness of a woman's finger, but varying with the sizes of the
fowls ; these are subdivided by a sloping cut into " patons,"
pellets, 2^ inches long.

A board is used for mixing the flour with the milk, which in
winter should be lukewarm ; it is poured into a hole made in the
heap of flour, and mixed up little by little with a wooden spoon
so long as it is taken up ; the dough is then kneaded by the
hands till it no longer adheres to them.

TIic Poidtnj of France. 89

Some say that barley, or even oatmeal, is a good substitute
for buckwheat-meal, but Mdlle. Millet is not of that opinion.
Indian corn, the white variety, may do, but it is dear, and makes
" short " paste, unless mixed with buckwheat, when it answers
well if cheap enough ; but buckwheat is a hardy plant, which
may be grown anywhere at small cost.

The food is thus administered : — The attendant puts on an
apron which will stand being soiled or torn, and takes the pellets
on a board with a bowl of clear water. She takes the first fowl
from its cage gently and carefully, not by the wings or the legs,
but with both hands under the breast. She then seats herself with
the fowl upon her knees, putting its rump under her left arm, by
which she supports it; the left hand then opens its mouth (a little
practice makes this very easy), and the right hand takes up a
pellet, soaks it well in the water {this is essential), shakes it on
its way to the open mouth, puts it straight down, and carefully
crams it with the forefinger well into the gullet ; when it is so
far settled down that the fowl cannot eject it, she presses it
down gently with thumb and forefinger into the crop, taking
care not to fracture the pellet ; for if some scraps of it remained
in the gullet they might cause inflammation.

Other pellets follow the first, till the feeding is finished, in
less time than one would imagine. It sometimes happens, par-
ticularly in the early stage of fatting, that the tracheal artery is
compressed together with the gullet ; this makes the poor creature
cough, but is not of any serious consequence, and with a little
experience this mishap is easily avoided. The fowl when fed is
again held with both hands under its breast, and replaced in its
cage without Jiuttering it ; and so on with each fowl.

The chicken should have two meals in twenty-four hours
twelve hours apart, provided with the utmost punctuality ; if it
has to wait it becomes uneasy, if fed too soon it has an indi-
gestion, and in either case loses weight. On the first day of
cramming only two or three pellets are given at each meal ; the
allowance is daily increased by one at a time till it reaches
twelve to fifteen pellets. The stomach may he filled, but at each
meal you must make sure that the last is duly digested, Avhich is
easily ascertained by gently handling the crop. If there be any
dough in it, digestion has not gone on properly ; the fowl must
miss a meal, and have rather a smaller allowance next time ; if
too much food be forced upon the animal at first it will get out
of health and have to be set at liberty.

The fatting process ought to be complete in two or three
weeks, but for extra fat poultry twenty-five or twenty-six days are
required ; with good management you may go on for thirty days ;

00 The Poullrij of France.

after this the creature becomes choked with accumulated fat,
wastes awaj, and dies.

To judg^e of the fatness of the fowl, handle it at the upper part
of the back, between the wings, or just under the Avings, or again
on cither side of the tail, below the rump.

When a fowl is to be killed, it should first be fasted for twelve
to fifteen hours, and then held carefully (not hung up by the
heels, which would suffocate it), the mouth opened, and either
the under side of the tongue cut with sharp scissors, or the
pointed blade of a knife thrust into the palate till it pierces the
brain ; or thirdly, a few feathers may be plucked from the left
side of the head, just f below the ear, and a good incision made
at the spot. In any case it must be fastened up by the heels
immediately afterwards, that it may bleed freely, for on this the
whiteness of the flesh depends ; but during the death-struggle
let it be held by the head.

Directions are further given for drawing and trussing which
it is hardly necessary to record. The chicken is bandaged, till
cold, to mould its form ; and if the weather is warm it is plunged
for a moment into very cold water. An average fowl takes about
ly\y peck of buck-wheat to fat it. The fat of fowls so managed is
of a dull white colour ; their flesh is as it were transparent beneath
a delicate skin.

Such is the management recommended by Mdlle. Millet, who
is a Corresponding Member of the Imperial and Central Agri-
cultural Society of France.

Poultry in a Suburban Houseliold.

Another aspect of the subject is presented by M. de Chavannes,
who discusses the question whether fowls reared in confinement
can yield a profit for the benefit of those who, by increasing house-
rents, are disseminated, "like mushrooms, in widening circles"
around large towns. Such persons cannot abandon the garden
to the beak and claws of a dozen " cacklers," so restraint is in-
dispensable.

The author himself occupies a house six miles from Paris,
with no ground attached to it but " a modest garden," and has
to buy all his poultry-food : if he can make both ends meet, no
one need despair. Now, his account-book (in which receipts
and expenses are entered to a centime) shows that he has had
a supply of eggs and fowls at a cheaper rate than that at which
he could have bought them, though, on the other hand, he would
have sold these proceeds at a loss, for the price at which a poul-
terer will buy of a " bourgeois " is ludicrously low.

But a poultry -yard which is to pay must be \ccll kept ; for all

The Poultry of France. 91

animals require special care and intelligence in tlieir manage-
ment; amateurs therefore require to have pointed out to them
their most common blunders.

In the first place, their fowls are often ill lodged. Every
transplanted " cit " dreams of new-laid eggs ; but it is only after
providing for flowers, vegetables, and fruits that the Parisian
who buys land by the foot asks himself, " How shall I house the
hens?" After a search he discovers some corner where plants
will not live for want of air and sun, and there he sets up his
trellice, painted bright green in cruel mockery. " How many
of these dens," writes M. de Chavanne, " did I come across in a
three months' cjuest of a home ! How many victims did 1
behold, who, with one leg in the mud, and the other buried in
the breast-feathers, invoked the cook's knife to put an end to
their misery ! Poultry must have space, air, and sun, or the
balance-sheet will tell a sorry tale."

The next source of mischief is an aspiration after fancy
poultry of various kinds, often selected for eccentricities in
plumage ; from such a jumble of races this alone can be foreseen,
that the produce will not be good layers and ready fatteners.
The feeding too is often mismanaged ; in a suburban establish-
ment the poultry gets overlooked ; and if the corn is given with
regularity, the water-trough is often empty, or, even in a well-
ordered establishment, a supply of "greens" is overlooked, or
the indispensable box filled with ashes or sand — the fowls' only
resource against parasites — is withheld,

M. de Chavanne commenced by buying a cock and hen of the
Houdan breed, at the Jardin d' Acclimatisation, with other hens,
to be weeded out hereafter. His outfit, including these purchases,
the cost of enlarging his poultry-yard, and of the necessary
utensils, came to 85 francs (3/. Si'.). The rest of the expenditure
for food, straw for litter, &c., from Aug. 1862 to Dec. 31, 1864,
came to 318 francs, making a total of 403 francs (16^. 2^. 6(f.)
In 1863, 790 eggs were collected, and 33 chickens eaten ; in
1864, 1087 eggs were collected, and 22 chickens eaten up to the
1st of Jan. 1865. The stock then consisted of 'i^^ fowls. If the
pullets consumed are valued at 2^. 6^/. apiece, and the live stock
at 1^. SfZ., the eggs eaten at all seasons have averaged 4 centimes
a piece (less than 8r/. per score). The pullets averaged 2f lbs.
a piece — no great weight for Houdan fowls, for they will easily
reach 5 lbs. ; but they suited M. de Chavanne's taste when
less fat.

The Houdan breed, which was selected after much delibera-
tion, has the following merits. They are early layers ; INIarch
chickens will sometimes lay in the following November ; although
they are slow to begin to sit, and sometimes intermit a year,

92 The Poultry of France.

they are very good mothers, cover their eggs well, boldly protect
their chicks, and are tame and tractable — not like some hens,
which the attendant cannot approach without creating a violent
commotion. In 1863 two pullets, which had each 15 eggs put
under them, reared 28 chickens. Since the Houdan hen could
not be relied upon for sitting, some Cochin China hens were
procured, the yellow colour of whose eggs obviated all risk of
mistakes, and these are undeniable sitters.

1 have thus endeavoured to collect the substance of various
articles, printed in the ' Journal d'Agriculture Pratique,' on a
subject Avhich seems of late to have received more attention in
France than in England. Indeed it is but too probable that with
us the care of poultry has retrograded ; for as the smaller hold-
ings have been absorbed by large farms, many an active, frugal
housewife has been withdrawn from rural life who had the will
and the means for rearing poultry for the market. Neither the
cottager with his allotment (instead of a share in the village
green or common) nor the artisan has range enough for bleeding
chickens to advantage, though M. de Chavanne points out that
with due attention they may be profitably reared for home con-
sumption under any circumstances.

It is quite needless for me to enlarge upon the importance, at
the present moment, of maintaining and developing our supplies
of animal food, particularly that of a superior equality. With
an abundance of inferior and cheap grain, our supplies of
pork may be rapidly extended. This meat is, however, but
a poor substitute for beef and mutton (except for our hardy
rural population), more particularly at a moment when Drs.
Cobbold, Crisp, &c., are sounding a " tocsin " of alarm respecting
the German " Trichinen." This same grain may be speedily
converted into the most delicate of food, if we forbear — not to
kill the fowl that lays the e^^ — but to eat some of the eggs that
may become chickens.

If, further, we pav attention to raising special food for poultry,
and trust Mdlle. Millet Robinet's experience, buckwheat may
be speedily grown ; one consideration, however, suggests both
an encouragement and a difficulty — all birds, large and small,
are particularly fond of this grain ; and neither the axe nor the
gun of the " chasseur aux petits oiseaux " has effected such a
clearance in our fields as in the wide plains of France. Can
buckwheat be imported to any considerable extent at a cheap
rate ?

( 03 )

Vlll. — On Disinfectants: heing tlie substance of a Lecture delivered
in Decemher, 1865, nntJi a Report of further Experiments, Sfc.
By De. a. Voelcker.

Contagion or infection signifies tlie communication of disease by
actual contact with sick animals, by contact with normal discharge or
abnormal secretions, or by means of effluvia arising from their bodies,
or by all articles which have been iu contact with diseased animals or
their discharges.

This power to communicate certain diseases api^cars to reside in
extremely subtle substances, which under favourable conditions
develop and reproduce themselves in healthy animals with which
they come into contact. Hence the danger that infected animals and
all materials touched by them may spread the Cattle Plague.

Our present knowledge of the structural and chemical properties of
infectious poisons is so scanty, and the difficulties attending investi-
gations into the natui'e of these subtle and unstable bodies are so
great, that we must not be surprised if the opinions of scientific men
respecting the nature of Cattle Plague j^oison arc greatly divided.
That we have to deal with a material though extremely subtle poison,
is, if I am not mistaken, generally admitted, not so the form and
precise nature of the i)oison. Although a good many microscopical
and physiological researches on this subject have been undertaken in
this country since the outbreak of the plague, the results obtained are
not sufficiently numerous and precise to warrant their publication in
detail. Whilst investigations of that kind are still actively j)ursued,
and men best informed on the subject hesitate to give a decided
opinion on the structure or the functions of the Cattle Plague poison,
it would not be right for me to mention names in connection with
any facts, or supposed facts, which the microscope may or may not
have brought to light.

Without offering an opinion on the correctness of the observations,
I may state that careful microscopic observers have noticed, more
especially in the faeces of cattle attacked by the j^lague, very minute
and peculiarly organised cells filled with numerous spherical bodies,
moving to and fro with great activity. These cells and their animated
globular contents are extremely small, so that the highest power of the
most powerful microscope is necessary for witnessing their existence.
According, then, to certain competent authorities, that which pro-
duces the Cattle Plague is exceedingly subtle organic matter dis-
posed in organic cells, and only revealed by microscopic research.
This poison in more than one respect resembles in general character
ordinary vaccine virus. It may be dormant three or four days before
its peculiar vitalised cells with their contents become active.

It is not the part of the chemist to say how the j^lague was j)roduced,
or what are the remedies to be api^lied in order to effect a cure.
I have no intention to trespass on the legitimate province of the
veterinarian, but I have felt it incumbent upon mo to direct special

94 Oil Disinfectants.

attention to tlic fact that wo have to deal with a very subtle but material
body, whether disinfection or cure be our object.

I j)ropose to make some observations on —

1st. The various disinfectants recommended by different persons,
their mode of action, and their comparative efficacy.

2nd. The application of disinfectants, to particular purposes, as
the disinfection of cow-sheds, carriages, trucks, manure -heaps, &c.

3rd. Preventives : an inquiry which would have special reference to
disinfectants in relation to the Cattle Plague.

With respect to the word " disinfectant," very vague and confused
notions are prevalent : and it would be well if the word were confined
solely to those solid, liquid, or gaseous materials which possess the
power of disorganising or destroying all matter capable of reproducing
disease in animals ; frequently, however, the word is applied to sub-
stances which, though they remove disagreeable gases and vapours,
such as- those produced by sulphuretted hydrogen, fail to destroy
the cause and source of the nuisance : properly these are deodor-
isers, not disinfectants ; and of these there are many. But the appli-
cation of chlorine or nitrous acid, not only removes the smell pro-
ceeding from frecal matters, but breaks up or destroys the organic
matter and resolves it into ultimate gas products, comparatively harm-
less, as completely as fire could do. Chlorine and nitrous acid, there-
fore, are not merely deodorisers, but true disinfectants ; and such
substances are always deodorisers, although deodorisers are not always
disinfectants.

Agents used to prevent or retard that putrefaction which gives rise
to foul odours, are often regarded as disinfectants. If, however, a
disinfectant be that which breaks up and destroys the constitution of
organic matter, the term is inapplicable to substances which, instead
of hastening destruction, preserve organic matter from disorganisation.
Such substances are, properly sj)eaking, antiseptics. Thus, carbolic
acid, creosote, and other preparations of tar, which, in minute quan-
tities, are capable of preventing the putrefaction of meat, blood, urine,
and other animal matters exceedingly prone to enter on decomisosition,
are true antiseptics, and the very reverse in their action to disin-
fectants, such as chlorine, and nitrous acid. It is true that, in a con-
centrated state, carbolic acid and creosote are strong destroyers of
organic matter ; but it must be borne in mind that, in such a form, they
could not practically bo used for disinfecting purposes. Moreover, in
common parlance, the term disinfection is applied to substances Avhich
merely deodorise j)laces from which foul gases emanate ; and this is
much to be regretted, because such a use of the word involves con-
fusion of ideas and errors in practice. I call disinfectants, therefore,
those substances which destroy all matter capable of producing dis-
ease ; deodorisers those which neutralise foul gases without destroying
the organic bodies from which they emanate ; whilst substances em-
ployed to prevent or impede putrefaction I call antiseptics rather
than disinfectants.

On jDisinfectants. 95

1, On vabious Disinfectants — their Mode of Action and

TRACTICAL UtILITT.

a. True Disinfectants.

Tlie following are some of the best known true disinfectants : —

Chloride of lime, chlorine gas, sulphurous acid, nitric acid, nitrous
acid, quick lime, soda ash, wood and peat charcoal, dry earth, man-
ganate and permanganates of potash or soda (Condy's disinfectant), fii-e,
heat, and air.

All true disinfectants, as stated already, destroy more or less rapidly
organic matters. On account of the rapidity with which some exert
their power, they are highly injurious to animal life, and therefore
cannot be used in cowsheds or stables in which animals are kept at
the time when disinfection has to be practised.

Others destroy organic matters only slowly, but in the end most
effectually ; and still others dissolve infectious matters readily, but,
unlike chlorine or nitric acid, act ujion it very gradually. These
differences ' in the actions of disinfectants, and their general applic-
ability or their use in special cases, will best appear as we go through
the list given above.

Chloride of Lime. — Slaked lime absorbs large quantities of chlorine
gas, and becomes changed into hypochloride of lime and chloride of
calcium. Both these combinations, with more or less unchanged
quick lime, carbonate of lime, and even all the impurities originally
present in the quick lime employed, are present in chloride of lime or
bleaching-powder ; a preparation which is made] by passing chlorine
gas into slaked lime, so as to saturate it more or less completely.
The active principle is hypochloride of lime, which is readily decom-
posed by all mineral acids. Even the weak carbonic acid, always
present in ordinary air, acts ujion it, forming carbonate of lime and
disengaging hypochlorous acid. Chlorine and oxygen, the consti-
tuent elements of hypochlorous acid, are held together in this acid
but very feebly; in consequence of which it readily splits into free
oxygen and chlorine gas. Chloride of lime of commerce thus is a pre-
paration which merely on exposure to a moist air gives off oxygen in a
nascent condition and chlorine gas, which is distinguished from most
other elementary gases by its great affinity for hydrogen.

Chlorine unites not only with great violence with pure hydrogen,
but it also takes hydrogen from its combination with other substances.
In most organised substances, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are never-
failing constituents. The hydrochloric acid is very raj)idly destroyed,
or rather it breaks up very rapidly into free oxygen and chlorine ; two
gases which, acting ujion meat and nearly all animal and vegetable
matters, burn and disorganise them completely. If we take a piece of
meat and boil it well in chloride of lime for a sufficient time, it is
altogether destroyed, and disaj)j)ears, being resolved into gaseous and
comparatively harmless products. This is unquestionably one of the
most active and most available artificial disinfectants we can use,
either for disinfecting carcases or for brushing over the walls and
floors of tainted sheds. For sucli uses, mix 1 lb. of chloride of lime

96 On Disinfectants.

•\vitli tlarce gallons — a small pailful — of water ; this will give a
milky liquid. For some purj)oses a clear solution of chloride of limo
is useful ; this is produced by putting 2 ounces of chloride in 1 gallon
of water, and after shaking uji the milky liquid allowing it to settle,
and finally drawing off the clear watery liquid from the insoluble
lime deposit.

Although chloride of lime is perhaps the most generally useful dis-
infecting agent, its extensive use in cowsheds or stables cannot be
recommended as long as stock are kept in them, for if spread about
in such abundance as to destroy contagion it is sure to injui-e the
health of cattle, or if used more sparingly its efficiency in destroying
the infectious matter will be doubtful,

Chlorine gas is a still more powerful and concentrated disinfectant,
in a form which is convenient for certain purposes, such as the disin-
fection of cowsheds or the holds of cattle-sheds by fumigation.
Chlorine fumigations are made either by placing in a sloj)-basin or
deep jar finely powdered black oxide of manganese and pouring upon
it common muriatic acid ; or by mixing together 3 jiarts of common
salt, 1 part of black oxide of manganese, 2 parts of oil of vitriol,
diluted with an equal proportion of water.

The mixtm-e of salt and manganese may be kept ready mixed for
use, and the diluted oil of vitriol pom'ed upon some of the mixture in
a shallow vessel when required.

For fumigating a large cowshed about 1^ lb. of finely powdered
black oxide of manganese and It pint of muriatic acid ^^•ill be suffi-
cient. The heat generated by the oxide in acting upon the black
oxide of manganese disengages a good deal of chlorine ; but if it is
desired to obtain all the chlorine which the mixtiu-e is capable of
yielding, it is advisable to place the vessel in which the acid and
manganese are mixed together on a gentle charcoal fire. Another
plan of generating chlorine is to pour dilute sulphuric acid (1 part of
strong acid and 10 of water) upon chloride of lime.

As chlorine is an extremely poisonous gas, the person who is about
to fumigate an unoccupied place must take care not to inhale any of
the gas.

Stdjjliurous acid, which acts, not in the same, but in a similar
manner, may also be used for disinfecting piu'poses Avith very great
propriety, and it is very readily prepared. Light some flowers of
sulphur (about 1 or 1^ lb.) : the resulting gas is sulphiu'ous acid, a
most powerful destroyer of organic matter, which may be usefully
applied to parts of buildings not otherwise accessible to bleaching
powder or other disinfectants.

Nitric and nitrous acids are powerful oxydising agents which destroy
organic matters by yielding to them oxygen in an active state. They
burn up, in fact, organic matters at a low temperature in a manner
similar to that in which fire destroys them at an elevated temi^erature.
Nitrous acid fumigations were introduced by Dr. Carmichael Smith,
who, in 1797, received a reward from Parliament of 6000Z. for the
publication of his formula. Nitric and nitrous acid vapoiu's may be
produced in the following manner : — 4 ozs. ^of powdered nitre are put

On Disinfectants. 97

into a sliallow earthenware vessel and mixed ■\\dtli 4 ozs. of oil of vitriol
and 2 ozs. of water ; the vessel containing this mixture is then placed
over heated cinders, the heat of which causes the acid gases to bo
evolved in abundance.

Still more conveniently, and without the application of heat, nitrous
acid fumes may be generated by pouring ? lb. of concentrated nitric
acid upon 3 ozs, of copper shavings or turnings put into a tall jar or
basin.

Quich Lime. — Quick lime disorganises and by degrees destroys
animal and vegetable matters, and at the same time absorbs products
of decomposition, such as sidphuretted hydi'ogen and carbonic acid.
It is thus at once a disinfectant and a deodorizer. It ought to have
been recently burnt, and may be used for disinfecting purposes, either
in the form of dry powder or stirred uj) with about ten times its bulk
of water, as milk of lime.

In the shajie of a tliick lime-wash quick lime receives extensive appli-
cation as a disinfectant ; and in the form of dry powder it is a good
and the most practically available means for disinfecting carrion, dung,
and manure-heaps from cattle that have died of plague.

Soda-ash. — Crude carbonate of soda, or soda-ash generally contains
some caustic soda in addition to carbonate, and as it is a cheap
material and its action upon organic matters similar to that of quick
lime, but more energetic, it deserves to be employed more extensively
than it is at present for disinfecting purposes.

Soda-ash is readily soluble in water, 1 lb, of soda-ash dissolved in
2 gallons of warm water is a liquid which, apart from its disinfecting
powers, recommends itself by its excellent detergent properties for
removing organic filth adhering to woodwork, mangers, wooden stable
utensils, and all other articles which may have become soiled by
infected cattle.

Quick lime is only sparingly soluble in w^ater, and for this reason
does not dissolve organic matters so readily as soda-ash, nor does quick
lime destroy them so rapidly as the caustic alkali in the soda-ash.

Wood or peat charcoal possesses a remarkable destroying power on
organic substances. If dry, charcoal absorbs diiferent gases in very
diiferent proportions, as will be seen in the following tabular view of
Saussure's results : —

Absorption of Gases hy fresldy-hunied Charcoal.

One volume of cliarcoal absorbed — Volumes.

Ammonia 90-0

Hydrochloric acid 85'0

Sulphurous acid f;5-0

Sulphuretted hydroLreu 55-0

Protoxide of nitrogen . . 40"0

Carbonic acid 35-0

Bicarburetted hydrogen 35"0

Carbonic oxide 94

Oxygen 9-2

Nitrogen 7*2

Carburetted hydrogen o*0

Hydrogen 1"7

VOL. TI. — S, S. H

98 On Disinfectants.

It had been supposed that charcoal preserved meat, but the investiga-
tions of Dr. Stenhouse have shown that it hastens very much the
destruction of flesh, and all kinds of animal matter. It possesses the
power not only of absorbing certain smelling gases — sulphuretted
hydrogen and ammonia — but also of destroying the gases thus absorbed.
For otherwise its purifying action would soon be greatly impaired.
It is very porous, and its pores are filled with condensed oxygen
to the extent of eight times its bulk. We have, therefore, in charcoal
oxygen gas (which supports combustion, or lights fires), in a con-
densed and more active condition than in the common air which
we breathe. Hence it is that organic matter in contact with char-
coal is so rapidly destroyed. The beauty of charcoal is, that the
destruction takes place imperceptibly, and that its power of burning
organic matter is continually renewed by the surrounding atmosphere,
so that it is a constant carrier of atmospheric oxygen in a condensed
state in its pores : the oxygen which acts on organic matter, and burns
it up, is speedily rejilaced, and the process goes on continuously.
Hence it is that a comparatively small quantity of wood or peat char-
coal is capable of destroying a very large quantity of organic matter.
The substance before me on the table is part of the hind-quarters of
a fox. It has been perfectly inodorous from the first day when I
put it in the jar and covered it with powdered charcoal : it was sent
me for another jiurpose — to ascertain if poison was in it ; but Dr.
Stenhouse having just discovered that charcoal hastened the decom-
position of organic matter, I thought that while examining for poison
I might further test the proj^erties thought to reside in charcoal ; but,
as Dr. Stenhouse has said, the meat is rapidly destroyed, and nothing
but skin and bone is left behind. Wood-charcoal, therefore, is an
excellent means of destroying animal matter, and for covering up
urine. Peat-charcoal might be similarly used. Where neither can
be obtained, earth is an efficient disinfectant.

In a similar manner, and perhaps more powerfully for some pur-
poses, quick lime or caustic soda, or soda-ash, act in destroying
animal matter. The soda-ash of commerce appears to be superior to
quick lime for disinfecting purposes, for the simple reason that it
rapidly dissolves in water, and can enter jDorous substances — like
wood — which cannot be readily touched by quick lime. Moreover,
soda is a powerful detergent, a good washer, and removes what would
not be attacked by bleaching-i^owder.

Condi/s Disinfecting Liquid is a solution of much utility as a dis-
infectant, but scarcely applicable to the wants of the farmer. In per-
manganic acid we have oxygen in an active condition, operating as a
powerful destroyer of organic matter.

Fire, air, heat, steam (at 250° Fahrenheit) readily destroy infectious
poison. Boiling water, and, better still, high-pressure steam, com-
pletely disinfects meat from diseased animals, and hence may be
used for boiling dov/n carcases of diseased animals, and utilising
the fat.

Of deodorisers, perchloride of iron in solution, sulj)hate of iron,
suljjhate of zinc, nitrate of lead, chloride of zinc, may be mentioned.

On Disinfectants, 99

Amongst antiseptics, or i^reventers of putrefaction, prepared fronx
coal tar, McDougall's and Tomliusou's Disinfectants may be named.

The Application of Disinfectants.

Under this liead we have to consider the disposal of animals which
have died from the Plague, or have been slaughtered on account of it ;
the disinfection of cowsheds ; the disposal of the maniu'e of infected
animals ; the disinfection of pastures, agricultural implements, and
harness. Chlorine, the most powerful destroyer of animal matter,
cannot be used in sheds where animals are kept, and manganic and
permanganic salts, or Condy's disinfectants, cannot, for obvious reasons,
be employed in disinfecting manure-heaps and bulky materials. For
all the purposes for which a farmer or dairyman may require to have
recourse to disinfectants, his choice of materials may well be confined
to chloride of lime, quick lime, and earth, to which may j^erhaps be
added fumigation with sulphur and chlorine. In applying disinfectants
like chloride of lime, many persons are immindful of the fact that all
disinfectants must bo used in quantity proportionate to the amount of
matter or surface to be disinfected ; a mere sprinkling will not do. One
other general observation : soap or soda, plenty of water, a copious supply
of fresh air, are the most important disinfectants on which to rely for
the purifying of sheds ; for although certain artificial disinfectants
are necessary for the perfect destruction of the infectious matter,
yet the use of these should always be preceded by the free use of soft
soap or soda-ash and water, and be followed up by fully ventilating
the place two or three days before putting healthy stock again into the
premises.

Burial of Cattle. — If animals have died of the disease, where there
is a convenient place of bm'ial immediately adjoining the premises
where the death has taken place, the carcase should be buried five feet
deep, and covered with six inches of quick lime, or, still better, jjeat-
charcoal : the spot must not be near a well or other source of water-
supi^ly. If there be no convenient place for burial in the neighbour-
hood, the carcase should be removed from the premises, and recourse
must be had to disinfectants, and the most available would be chloride
of lime. For one animal, about 4 lbs. or 5 lbs. of chloride of lime
will suffice, which should be mixed with a little water, until it has the
consistence of cream, and then combined with 3 pailsful of water and
stirred thoroughly with a stick or iron spoon, adding the remaining
water. The carcase should be thoroughly mopped over with this
mixture, a portion of which should be pom'ed into the mouth and
nostrils (followed by a stopping of tow), and a further portion into the
rectum and vagina ; these to be plugged in the same manner. This
is in accordance with the recommendation of the Committee of Privy
Council, in cases where burial cannot take place immediately.

In and around large towns, where no convenience for bm-ial exists,
the carcase is best disposed of by boiling it down in large coppers by
high-pressure steam, which will disorganise and completely disinfect
the flesh, entrails, and even the bones ; the fat would be available, and
the flesh, could be used for manuring purposes. The hides, horns,

H 2

100 On Disinfectants.

{incl lioofs of diseased animals should be mopped with a solution of
chloride of lime — I^^IL. or 2 lbs. to a pail of water.

Then as to the disinfection of cowsheds and stables. The discharge
from diseased animals or their skins is the principal and primary
seat of the infectious matter of the Cattle Plague. Therefore, manure
which the cattle have made should be disinfected ; every part of tho
shed they have used should be well scraped and washed with soft soap
and water, or, better still, with 1 lb. of soda-ash to a pail of warm
water, followed by cold water. The pavement should be taken up and
cleansed ; a hot mixture of lime and water, and lastly of chloride of
lime, should be used, and the pavement should be relaid in a fresh
bedding of concrete, the old materials being carefully buried ; the
floor should be mopped over with li lb. of chloride of lime to a
pail of water. The infection might be carried into the walls and
rafters ; in such case fumigate with sulphurous acid, chlorine, or
nitrous acid gas. In order to effect this, all ventilators, windows, and
aj)ertures must be closed beforehand to prepare for the fumigation,
for the poisonous gas will kill the operator if he docs not make a
rapid escaj)e after setting the fumigation to work. 1 lb. of sulphiar
burned on the floor in three or four places, will afford a copious
supply of suli)hurous acid for a shed which will hold 12 cows. The
windows and doors of the cowhouse must be well closed, for other-
wise the fumes would create a nuisance in tho neighbourhood. This
indeed is an objection to the employment of chlorine or sulphurous
acid gas in a densely populated locality — remedies which would make
the whole neighbourhood cough and run away for safety, if the sheds
were in a dilapidated condition, or could not be effectually closed.
After the fumigation has been carried on for twenty hours, the shed
should be ventilated by opening the windows and doors, and the walls
should be whitewashed. If the floors are taken up, cleansed, and
relaid in the manner described, and the shed afterwards fumigated
and whitewashed, the disinfection will be as perfect as it can be.

The Disposal of Manure, Straw, &c.

Any hay or straw left by the diseased cattle should be burned at
once : it would be well if the manure could be burned ; but there is a
practical difficulty about doing this ; for even when a good fire is fii'st
lighted, and the manure gradually put on it, the water (80 to 85 per
cent.) contained in it will smother the fire, and i^roduce a smoke
which might possibly disseminate the Cattle Plague over the land.
However, what can be burned shoidd be burned at once, and the
manure to be removed should be covered over with lime ; not less than
5 cwt. of lime, newly slaked, for a ton or cartload of manure : it
would be useless to substitute a small quantity of chloride of lime.
The manure should be carted into the field, and covered with earth in
alternate layers, ending with earth. As an extra precaution I would
cover the heap with peat-charcoal or quick lime. In three or four
months there would be a valuable comjiost heap, which might be
spread without any fear of its containing infectious matter. This
would be foimd to be the most practical plan.

On Disinfectants. 101

In Sweden and Franco, wliere a good deal of artificial nitre is
produced, urine, solid manure, and refuse are put up in heaps
together with earth and lime, and left for six months or more, so as to
form artificial nitre beds.

The Disinfection of Pastures. — All that can be done is to knock
about with the pitchfork tlie droppings of cows, and then apply a
dressing of lime at the rate of 100 bushels to the acre. The air and
the soil will do the rest. In two or three weeks, provided rain has
fallen in the interim, stock may be safely placed in such pastures.

Articles of small value, such as ropes and half-used-up straps,
should be burned or buried. Shovels and stable utensils should be
cleansed with soft soap and chloride of lime, half a pound to a pailful
of water. Iron is best disinfected by being heated red-hot in the fire.

PEEVENTIVES.

Are there any means by which the disease can be prevented from
extending ? Undoubtedly there are. There shoiild be perfect isola-
tion of diseased stock ; perfect destruction of the infection by fire,
chloride of lime, sulphurous acid, or other disinfectants. Inasmuch,
however, as artificial disinfectants, if powerful, cannot always be em-
ploj^ed, because themselves destructive to animal life, we are jjractically
thrown on perfect isolation as the only means at present known of
securing safety from the spread of the Cattle Plague ; and the sooner
the farmers and the Government recognise this important fact, and
act upon it, the sooner will this frightful calamity disappear from the
country.

It is vain to speculate, from imperfectly ascertained indications in
physical science, ujion the eflect which certain substances, recom-
mended as preventives, may produce in protecting healthy cattle, but
I do not know of a single case in which it is clearly sho^\^l that
by placing certain materials in a cowhouse, the cows had been guarded
against contagion ; sj^reading about the cowsheds sawdust saturated in
carbolic acid might do good ; so might Terebane Phenyl, or Mac-
dougall's disinfecting powder, or other preparations which owe their
efficacy to the distillation of tar ; but experience, our best guide, has
not yet furnished us with any decisive facts.

Experiments with Caeeolic Acid upon Beef.

Thinking it desirable that some trial should be made of the anti-
septic powers of carbolic acid, I began a series of experiments with
1 lb. of perfectly fresh beef on the 27th of December, 1865.

1. \ lb. was placed in a beaker with 2 ozs. of distilled water.

2. Another i lb. was placed in 2 ozs. of a solution of carbolic acid
in water containing 1 part of carbolic acid to 1000 of water.

3. The third i lb. of beef was covered over with a solution containing
1 part of carbolic acid in 100 parts of water ; and

4. The fourth t lb. of beef was put into a solution containing I part
of carbolic acid in 50 jiarts of water.

The four beakers were covered with ghxss plates and placed side

102 On Disinfectants.

by side in a room, tlie temperature of wliicli was 53° Falir. on tlie 27th
of December.

The contents of the beakers were examined from time to time.

1 . Beef covered with Water only.

On the 1st of January, 1866, the meat in experiment No. 1 began
to smell badly, and on the following day it gave off a horrible stench.
On the 3rd of January abundance of gas-bubbles were given off from
the putrefying meat, and sulphuretted hydrogen was readily detected
with lead-j^aper in the gases generated from the rotten beef.

The temperature of the room during this period ranged between
53° and 58= Fahr.

2. Beef immersed in a solution of 1 ^mrt of Carholic Acid in 1000
of Water.

On the 3rd of January the meat was still quite soimd. It remained
so until the 8th of January, when a fungus began to be formed on the
surface of the liquid in which it was immersed, and a few gas-bubbles
were also observed to rise from the meat.

On further examination I found that fermentation had set in, and
that the watery liquid had a strongly acid reaction, and that lactic
acid had been formed apparently in considerable quantities. It is
worthy of particular notice that no disagreeable smelling gases were
given off on the 8th of January. It is plain therefore that the minute
quantity of carbolic acid in the water in which the beef was immersed
in this experiment had the effect of retarding the decomposition for
10 days, after the lapse of which it did not enter into putrefaction bxit
into lactic acid fermentation. The fungus on the surface of the liquid
rapidly increased, and after a few more days a slightly disagreeable
smell gradually became perceptible. Examined again on the 15th of
January the fungus was found completely to cover the surface of the
liquid, and the smell given off from the meat was decidedly bad. The
next day it was worse, and the stench became so intolerable on the day
following that the meat had to be thrown away.

We thus learn from this experiment that a very weak carbolic
acid solution, although it greatly delayed the changes which rapidly
took place in the meat immersed in water and caused it after a period
of 10 days to j^ass through the lactic ■ acid fermentation, did not
ultimately prevent its putrefaction.

3. Beef immersed in Water containing 1 j)art of Carholic Acid in 100

of Water.

Up to the present date (February 3) the beef in this experiment is
still free from any disagreeable smell ; the liquid has turned slightly
acid and its colour has become somewhat unsightly, but no gas-
bubbles nor any trace of fungoid growth are noticeable.

4. Beef immersed in Water containing 1 part of Carholic Acid in
50 of Water.

The meat in this experiment is still (3rd of February) perfectly

On Disinfectants. 103

sound and nnclianged in colour or general appearance since the 27tli
of December, 1865, when the exj^eriment began.

In the preceding experiments the highest temperature of the room
was 61° Fahr., the lowest 53° Fahr.

In the next place I tried the following experiments, partly with a
view of ascertaining whether carbolic acid destroyed or merely
masked the foetor proceeding from putrid meat, and partly with a view
of ascertaining whether putrid meat is capable or not of tainting fresh
meat in an atmosphere strongly impregnated with carbolic acid
vapours.

About -J lb. of putrefying beef was put into a jar, covered with
water, and some concentrated carbolic acid was added. The putrid
smell disappeared instantaneously, and I am quite satisfied that the
smell was not merely masked but completely destroyed by the solu-
tion ; for the jar, which previously could not be opened without filling
the whole room with an insufterable stench, now gave out no smell but
that of carbolic acid perceptible even at its mouth, nor was there any
smell perceptible in the further part of the room.

In the next place ^ lb. of fresh beef was cut into two equal pieces,
and \ lb. was suspended in a large wide-mouthed stone jar by means
of a wire fixed in the cover of the jar.

In the course of 4 days the meat emitted so strong and putrid a smell
that it had to be removed.

The second i lb. of beef was susiDended in the same manner and at
the same time in a large stone jar, in the bottom of which a piece of
putrefying meat was placed, after a little concentrated carbolic acid
had been allowed to flow round the sides of the jar for the purpose of
imj)regnating the air with the vapours of the volatile acid.

After a lapse of exactly a month the beef in the second jar is free
from taint, but of course smells strongly of carbolic acid and is unfit
for consumption.

Flesh when immersed in a concentrated carbolic acid solution
shrivels up and becomes hard like leather. How long it will remain
in this condition I have not yet ascertained, but probably for an
indefinite period.

Experiments with Caebolic Acid on Eennet and Milk.

The object of the following experiment was to determine whether
weak and moderately strong solutions of carbolic acid destroyed or
left unaltered the peculiar property of rennet to coagulate the casein
of milk, or destroyed its active organic principle as chlorine or nitric
acid do.

The solution of rennet which I employed was tested in the first
place, as it had been made a long time ago.

1. A quarter of an oimce added to two ounces of milk thoroughly
coagulated the milk in less than 10 minutes.

2. One-eighth of an ounce of concentrated carbolic acid added to
two oimces of milk did not curdle it.

3. In the next place I added to a quarter of an oimce of rennet

104 On Disinfectants.

one-eiglitli of au ounce of concentrated carbolic acid, and then mixed
the two witli two ounces of milk.

The addition of the concentrated carbolic acid prevented the coagu-
lation of the milk.

The concentrated acid thus destroyed the active jiriuciple in rennet.

4. Two ounces of the same milk were mixed with a quarter of an
ounce of rennet and a quarter of au ounce of a solution of carbolic acid
containing 1 part in 1000 of w^ater.

The milk curdled in about 20 minutes.

5. A solution containing L part of carbolic acid to 100 of water
similarly ap])lied did not prevent the action of rennet.

6. To two ounces of milk a quarter of an ounce of rennet and a
quarter of an ounce of carbolic acid solution containing 1 part of acid
in 50 of water were added. The milk coagulated in about 20 minutes.

7. Lastly, a quarter of an ounce of the same carbolic-acid solution
which was used in the preceding experiment (1 in 50), added to milk,
did not coagulate it.

It thus apjiears that the active principle in rennet is only destroyed
or materially altered in character when it is brought into contact with
concentrated carbolic acid.

Different organic substances most probably are variously affected
by carbolic acid, and it is quite possible that, whilst some are more
readily altered in their chemical composition than rennet, others may
resist its action with greater force. I found that solutions containing
1 part of carbolic acid in 50 of water in some experiments destroyed
the power of yeast to cause alcoholic fermentation. I am not, how-
ever, prepared to speak decisively on this j^oint until the experiments
have been repeated.

The power of carbolic acid to arrest the decomposition of urine I
also find to be very great.

The most convenient, and perhaps most efficient, i:)lan of using
carbolic acid in stables, cowhouses, &c., is to mix equal parts of water
and crude carbolic acid together, and to soak up the liquid com-
pletely by dry sawdust. Or two gallons of the mixture may be jjoured
at once over a sackful of sawdust. The sawdust so impregnated may
be handled with perfect safety, and when spread about in cattle-sheds
will charge the air with the volatile vapours of the most powerful
known antiseptic.

The prepared sawdust should be kept in bags, and a little of it
spread every morning and afternoon. If it does no good otherwise,
it will certainly have the effect of keeping the shed free from the taint
of putrid urine and decomposing manures.

Since the effects iDroduccd on animals by carbolic acid are very
remarkable, and the crude concentrated acid can be purchased at 5s.
per gallon, it is desirable to give it an extensive trial as a preventive
agent : in one way only can siich trials be injurious, if they encourage
farmers to become indifferent or careless about perfect isolation — our
only effectual safeguard.

In conclusion, vigilance in excluding from farms, as far as practic-
able, butchers, veterinary inspectors, farm-servants coming from places

Discussion on Disinfectants. 105

wliei-e EincTerpest prevails, and all wlio may liavo come into contact
with diseased stock, cannot be too strongly urged upon all stock-
owners.

11, Salisbury-square, Flcd-street, February, 1866,

Abstract of the Discussion lohich took place after the Deliver i/ of
Peofessor Yoelcker's Lecture.

The Chairman (Lord Berners) was quite sure that all present
would agree wdth him that this interesting lecture on a subject of the
utmost importance should be published as soon as possible. The
lecture contained a great number of practical hints as to the cleansing
of sheds and implements, fumigation by burning half a pound of
sulj^hur on the floor, limewashing, and ventilation, all of which could
bo done with materials at the hands of every farmer. He agreed with
the lecturer as to the difficulty of getting rid of manure by burning.
But how would it be aflected if treated with lime in the way proposed ?
"Would not the ammonia be volatilised, and might they not in such a
case use gypsum to fix it ? And did the Professor think it would
be safe to turn the heap of infected manure and earth, disposed in
layers as he had described in as brief a period as he had named ?

Professor Voelcker replied in the affirmative. In answer to the
question as to the effect of lime on the manure-heap, he said that fresh
manure contained scarcely any ammonia : the ammonia was produced
during the decomposition, and therefore it was not desirable to mix
lime with rotten dung.

The Chairman : You would use it while the manure was green.
There was another important point. They all knew that there was no
greater fertiliser than the carcase of an animal. Supposing then a
diseased animal was buried, woxdd it be safe to use the body as manure
three months afterwards, or in what time '?

Professor Voelcker : I would leave the diseased animal in his
grave.

The Chairman stated that some time ago he had a tank, near where
he kept his prize stock, which smelled very disagreeably. One
morning he found the tank covered with a thick green slime, and
ordered a bushel of gypsum to be thrown over it : in the afternoon
there was not the slightest smell, and the scum was gone, but the colour
remained. He constantly used gypsiim in his yards, and cow-houses,
and pig-houses, and it almost entirely prevented any smell.

Dr. Crisp remarked that the learned Professor had much simplified
the subject of the Cattle Plague, when he stated that it originated in
living cells. He had himself examined for a long time the excretion
of animals dying from Cattle I'lague, but with no higher power than
500 or 600. He would like to ask what power was used in the dis-
covery of the cells, and were the cells peculiar to the Cattle Plague ?
Monads and other animalcula) were foimd in scores of animals. Was

106 Discussion on Disinfectants.

there in the Cattle Plagrie a peculiar cell ? It was most important to
know that this was a statement that could be depended upon.

Mr. Lees remarked that a more j)owerful analyst than the micro-
scope was the screen, the action of which was most extraordinary.
Had these cells been examined in that way ?

Professer Voelcker said it was not his intention to touch upon the
medical question. He merely alluded to it in order to have a conve-
nient op2x:)rtunity of showing that we had to deal in this disease with
a material substance. He could not say whether the microscopic cells
were in existence or not. He had no intention to open this qxiestion,
although it was most important that we should know whether the
disease had a material origin.

Mr. ToER asked what proportion the acid bore to the sawdust ?

Professor Voelcker said the sawdust should be mixed with about
20 per cent, of carbolic acid.

Colonel Talbot said he was a practical farmer, holding a dairy-
farm close to London, and the owner, dm-ing the last five months, of
100 cows, not one of which had been attacked by the Cattle Plague
till last Thursday (December 7th). When the plague was first heard
of, being of opinion that charcoal would be a good antisejitic, he
gave his bailiff orders to administer to each cow a quarter of a pint
of prepared charocal daily, and an ounce of nitre dissolved in a pint
of cold water each other day. His bailifi*, a practical man, who had
for twelve years had the charge of 300 cows, told him a few days
afterwards, that the unpleasant odour of the cows' breath, which
he had exjDcrienced in drenching them, had disappeared. He also
used very largely Burnett's Disinfecting Fluid, which he believed
was chloride of zinc ; he used it freely in the drains, with a watering-
jwt, and poured it about the sheds and mangers. He also lime-whited
the buildings. The result was that the sheds were perfectly inodorous,
although generally the smell of a cowshed is discernible two or three
hundred yards off. The animals were bought at farm-houses, and not
at fairs and markets : and when they reached home they were washed
with Burnett's Disinfecting Fluid. They were kept in the most per-
fect isolation that he could devise ; but yet, after all, the plague at
last attacked them.

He could not in any way trace the origin of the disease. It
attacked an old cow ; not one of the new ones. He had read every-
thing that had been written on the subject, and by chance he heard
of a medicine called Worbcna,* — a most potent medicine. On Friday
night last he had 11 cows suffering from the plague. One of them he
treated homoeopathically, and she died. The other 10 he treated with
the Worbeua. To-day 6 of them had perfectly recovered, and one
yielded 19 quarts of milk a-day ; and they were so ravenous for food,
that they were eating haybands.

The proper course to pursue was to watch with the gxeatest care
every animal in the herd and the moment they found any one the

* Col. Talbot has since informed the Editor that this, and all other remedies
he had tried, proved inetfectual at last.

Discussion on Disinfectants. 107

least off its food, treat it as if it had tlie plague. He would administer
an ajjcrient, I3 lb. of treacle, 2 or 3 ozs. of salts, 2 tablespoonsful of
suljjhur, and a bottle of Day's Fluid ; be would allow that aperient
to work for 12 bours, and then administer the Worbena. If this did
not cure tbe animal in two days, tbey sbould adopt fm-tber measm-es.
He would cover tbe animals, as recommended by Mr. Grabam, witb
three wet rugs and tbrec diy ones, to produce perspiration, and if
tbis did not succeed, be would jDroceed tbus — be bad a cow imder
treatment of tbis sort — be bad ber stomacb rubbed witb turpentine and
mustard, two seatons placed in tbe stomacb, and tbe wbole covered
"vWtb a bot poultice. Wbat tbe result would be be did not know.

Tbe Chairman thanked Colonel Talbot for giving tbe meeting the
result of bis experience ; be imagined that tbe j^recautions taken by
the gallant officer had rendered bis animals less likely to take the
disease.

Professor Voelcker said he had had no experience of the effect of
charcoal taken medicinally.

Mr. Eandall said the Professor, in speaking of the probable means
of preventing tbe jjlague, bad insisted on tbe necessity of perfect
isolation ; but when the fields were near to roads, it was impossible to
prevent the men from treading on the di-opj^ings of diseased cattle, and
bringing tbe taint into tbe fields. He would suggest that lime should
be spread in tbe gateways and approaches to tbe yards.

Tbe Earl of Shrewsbury proposed a vote of thanks to tbe Professor
for his kindness in delivering bis lectm'e, the ability be bad shown, and
the good advice be bad given.

Mr. J. J. LuNDY remarked, that though there was no ammonia in
green manm-e, ammonia made its appearance in 48 bom-s. He dis-
sented from tbe suggested use of the quick lime, and advocated the
use of the permanganates.

IX, — On the Management of Ponds and Wells. By R. Orlebar.

One cubic inch of rain represents a fall of 100 tons of water per
acre ! So savs that most accurate of calculators, the Reg-istrar-
General ; and the calculation is easy of proof. Now the average
annual rainfall of England varies from about 20 or 25 inches on
the east coast, to 40, 60, and 80, or even more, on the hills and
on the west coast. Supposing that we take 30 inches as the
average, we find that oOOO tons, equal in round numbers to about
13,000 hogsheads of water, are showered down for every acre
of England, at some time or other in the course of the twelve
months.* Yet all England has, so to speak, been starved for

* It may of course be objected that a fall of 40 inches in one place does not com-
pensate for one of only 20 inches in another ; but I think even the small fall of
20 inches may, with care, be made to provide a supply sufficient for all ordinary
occasions.

108 Management of Ponds and Wells.

want of water. Most incumbent is it, then, upon every thoughtful
man to try and remedy the waste which evidently must occur
somewhere ; and to inquire how the bountiful supply from the
skies may be best husbanded against a period of necessity.

In cities and large towns the demand for water — the most
important, perhaps, of all the commodities of life — is such, that
even a slight deficiency in the usual supply causes so great
inconvenience to all classes, that a remedy more or less expensive
is sure to be applied almost as soon as the want has made itself
known. But in rural parishes, the case is very different ; and
there are two main reasons Avhy this is so. One, and probably
the chief, is their poverty and general inability to carry out,
unaided, any great enterprise ; while the other is the apparent
mental apathy of men bred and born in the country as compared
with the inhabitants of towns, Avhose energies are daily and
hourly rubbed up and sharpened, as it were, by intercourse with
their fellows. Most of us who live in rural parishes, are more or
less dependent upon agriculture for our daily bread and daily
occupation ; and agriculture in its turn is so dependent upon
seasons and the weather, that we country people are too apt to
imagine that other things are equally dependent upon the same
source : we think what is to be is to be ; and so, resigning our-
selves to our fate, we often overlook a remedy which really lies
within our own power.

It is clear from the above-quoted statement of the Registrar-
General, that there can be but few parishes in England in which,
supposing that there were no waste, sufficient rain does not fall
to provide an ample supply of water for all agricultural and
domestic purposes. Our inquiry, then, should rather be directed
towards the ascertainment of the best means of storing up our
supply, than of increasing it or creating a new one. It is not
my present purpose to trace the origin and extent of that great
fresh-water ocean which is beneath our feet, or to treat of springs
— the overflowing of that vast bed of water, but rather to inquire
how a sufficient supply of water may be* obtained and kept in
those places where the springs are too deep to be easily or
cheaply available.

■ This must be done by means of ponds or wells, open or covered
reservoirs. First, then, let us inquire as to ponds. Most rural
parishes have some of these about the farms or close to the
villages. But of what sort are they, in what situations, and how
are they treated ? Too often they are but wide shallow pools,
giving off plenty of damp and fog in winter, while in summer
they are perhaps quite dry, or at best contain but a iew inches
of clear water above a deep bed of slush and mud. The deepest
part of the pond is almost invariably the farthest from the mouth,

Management of Ponds and Wells. 109

consequently, when cattle go to drink, they trample farther and
further into the mud, as the water recedes before them, and the
mud consumes almost as much, if not more than the cattle,
themselves.

Every pond should have a mouth, if only for the convenience
of cleanina; it out ; but most assuredly that part which is nearest
to the mouth should be the deepest ; and I would have the whole
pond so constructed, with a regular slope from every part towards
the mouth, that the last cupfuU should be found there. Those
who resort to it, be they men or cattle, would then have the
water always fresh and clean, and there would be no occasion
for them ever to advance into the pond beyond the mouth. Lest,
however, cattle should be tempted by the heat of the weather to
bathe or stand in the pond, I consider it very important that
a line of posts and rails should be erected across the pond, just
in front of the mouth. The mouth itself should be a gradual
slope from the surface of the ground down to the level of the
bottom of the pozid ; and it is only true economy to pave or
pitch it, so that the cattle may stand on a hard bottom. This
pitching should be of good sound flattish stones, set up edgeways,
and filled in with sand and lime. Pebbles and round stones do
not answer, as they are very slippery for stock to stand on,
besides being liable to get kicked up, and moved from their
places. The bottom course should be a good piece of oak timber,
Avell pegged down to two or three stout piles, to prevent the rest
of the pitching from slipping by degrees into the pond. This
pitching would be of great help, too, in case of its being necessary
at any time to send a cart down for water. For my own part,
however, I should say that, never on any pretext, should a
water-cart be sent down the mouth ; but I would use a small
hand or garden pump, and, by means of two short pieces of hose,
pump the water into the cart while standing on the level ; for
I am convinced that by this means much waste both of water
and labour would be avoided, besides wear and tear of horseflesh,
and damage to the pond.

I would next call attention to the very great importance of
making ponds sufficiently deep. Many ponds will hold water
throughout an ordinary summer ; but directly that an unusual
drought comes, and the want of water is really felt, it may be
said without exaggeration that four ponds out of five are suddenly
found to be dry. Whatever may be the superficial size, there
should be a minimum depth of not less than six or eight feet at
the mouth, which is, as I said before, to be the deepest part. By
every additional inch or foot in depth, a great hoard of water is
most economically stored up ; for a small, deep pond has three
great advantages over a larger and shallower one. In the first

110 Management of Ponds and Wells.

place it occupies less space ; secondly, it loses less in proportion
by evaporation, from its smaller surface ; while thirdly, when the
water gets low, that which remains is effectually shaded by the
high banks.

This mention of shade brings me to another important item
in the design of a pond. It is astonishing what an effect a little
shade has in checking evaporation. A pond that is well shaded
will hold water for weeks after one of equal dimensions, but
lacking shade, has become dry. Yet how recklessly this very
summer have I seen men cutting up every bush and tree round
the banks of their ponds. True, a few leaves may drop into the
water ; but if the pond-owner will only take the trouble to observe
the marvellous tenacity of a thoroughly saturated leaf, he will,
I am sure, be soon convinced that many an autumn must pass
away ere the accumulation of leaves which may drop* into his
pcmd can do him any harm. Always, therefore, if possible, have
the mouth of your pond on the north side, and shade on the south.
The best shade is that given by fir-trees, for they give it all the
year round. Moreover a less quantity of leaf falls from them
than from other trees, and that which does fall, being specifically
heavy, falls straight, and is not likely to be blown by the wind
when fallen. Neither are the branches of fir-trees as liable as
others to die and fall off, unless they are allowed to grow too
thick together. It is a maxim among those who cultivate the fir
for its beauty, that no tree of this sort should ever touch its
neighbour. At the same time, in exposed situations, they must
not be planted in too narrow a belt, or the wind will blow through
and stunt them all. It may be as well, too, to remark that the
Scotch fir, from its more hardy habit, is infinitely better
adapted for exposure than its more delicate congener, the
spruce. The jew would, perhaps, be even better for shade than
the fir, but for its poisonous qualities. After the fir, I doubt
whether there is, on the Avhole, any better plant for shade than
the hawthorn bush. Its leaves sprout early, and fall late ; and
it possesses, besides, the great advantage that it forms its own
fence ; for it is of great importance that a pond should be well
fenced, and no access allowed to it except at its appointed
mouth, otherwise there will be danger of children and cattle
Ijeing drowned, to say nothing of banks broken and trodden into
the water.

I have so far endeavoured to show what I consider to be the
proper construction of a pond, where only a single mouth is

* The case would of course be very different where a pond is surrounded on aU
sides by many trees, or is fed by a ditch or brook which Avill bring leaves from
elsewhere ; but then the mischief is caused by the leaves which are hloicn or
hruiiijlif, not by those which drop into the pond.

Management of Ponds and Wells. Ill

required. It remains to see what is the best situation lor such
a pond, and then how lar its construction may be modified by its
situation.

Our forefathers appear to have adopted, the plan, in very many
parts of England, of digging their ponds in the middle of the
field ; and as a consequence each farm was provided with almost
as many ponds as fields. To their ideas, a pond, evidently was
a pond, and they fancied that the more ponds they had, the
better were they supplied with water. The last two seasons,
however, have shown the fallacy of this reasoning, and we have
discovered to our cost that the title of pond was too often an
empty one.

Now-a-days every pole of ground is so much more valuable
than it was in the time when these old ponds were dug, that
few farmers can afford a pond to every field. It is, there-
fore, an object to make the same pond serve for two or even
four fields. If for the latter, it must of course be in the corners
of the fields ; and when we reflect on the great and constantly
recurring inconvenience arising from a pond in the centre of
a ploughed field, it will be seen that, ceteris paribus, the corner
is the best place for a pond, even where it is required for one
field only. It is impossible to plough quite into a corner, there-
fore the space may as well be occupied by a pond as become a
receptacle for weeds and rubbish. In a field of good permanent
pasture, which is never likely to be broken up, there would be, of
course, no more land wasted by a pond in the centre than by
one in the corner ; but my previous remarks upon shade and
fences prove, I think, that the corner is, in this case also, the
best site.

There are several matters, however, besides convenience, which
the digger should take into consideration before he commences
a new pond. He should ask himself whether, in the first place,
the spot selected is likely to gather a sufficient supply of Avater ;
and, if so, then whether it is likely to hold what it has
gathered ?

Now it is well known to scientific men that a rain-guage
placed upon the ground gathers more water than one raised a
few feet from the ground ; in fact, that the higher the guage is
placed, the less rain docs it gather. The reason of this is that
every drop has, in its descent, to pass through a very humid atmo-
sphere, and by the law of attraction is continually aggregating to
itself moisture from this atmosphere until it reaches the ground.
It is clear, therefore, that the nearer to the clouds each drop is
arrested, the smaller in proportion it will be. It follows from this
reasoning, that the lowest part of a field will gather the most rain ;

112 Mamujement of Ponds and TJ'eUs.

and it" a pond be placed there, drains from the rest of the fiekl
can in addition be brought into the pond. Nor, unless the land
is very flat, need the waste-pipe (which is in effect but a con-
tinuation of a drain) be placed quite as low as the supply-pipe ;
for I have often seen water running fast into a pond from a drain
whose mouth was considerably below the surface of the water in
the pond. At the same time, as the bulk of water in the pond
must have a tendency to hold back the water in the drain, I dare
not recommend that the waste-pipe should ever be more than
12 or 18 inches higher than the supply-pipe, and then only in
cases where the land to be drained is some feet higher than the
surface of the pond, otherwise I should be particularly careful to
keep a clear fall of some depth below the supply-pipe.

By thus draining a field into a pond, or in other words, making
a pond at the mouth of a drain, a good supply of water may often
be obtained in summer from a thunder-shower, which would
otherwise have raised the pond only an inch or two ; so that this
single advantage often makes a very small pond, or even a good
deep hole at a drain's mouth, equivalent to a large pond in a
woi'se situation.

Need I remind my readers that rats, rabbits, and foxes are
very fond of frequenting drains ? Indeed I once knew a 4-inch
pipe between two ponds blocked up by the bodies of two eels
which had tried to pass each other in opposite directions. All
danger, however, of this sort may be easily avoided by the simple
precaution of inserting between the two last pipes of the drain
a piece of perforated zinc, or galvanised wire-netting of a small
mesh. But where the water from a ditch is conducted into a
pond, it is very essential to filter it through a strong close wattle,
or better, through two, at a distance of a few feet from each other ;
otherwise the pond will be soon choked up, the ditch proving of
more harm than good.

We now come to the second question, viz., is a pond in this
lowest part of the field likely to hold water ? And here the
would-be pond-digger will find a small acquaintance with geology
very useful. If he knows what stratum is subjacent to the surface-
soil, he can tell to what depth he may safely penetrate. Should
the stratum be porovxs, as sand, gravel, or limestone, he must not
dig down to it, for he could never depend upon his pond holding
water, except perhaps where the adjoining country is almost a
perfect flat ; as, for instance, an elevated table-land, or low-lying
meadows, where gravel is often a good water-bearing stratum.
If, however, there is any fall of the land in the neighbourhood of
the pond, a porous substratum will be almost sure to let out the
water. It is possible, certainly, so to puddle the bottom and

Management of Ponds and Wells. 113

banks with clay, that leakage may seldom occur ; Init the proc(>ss
is costly, besides the constant danger of cracks coming through
heat or accidents.

Unless, therefore, the pond is likely to hold water in the lt)west
part of the field, the digger must choose some other spot. And
the next best site will, nine times out of ten, be in the highest
part ; for 1 have shown already that nearly everywhere in England
sufficient rain falls to give directly a fair ordinary supply of
water, apart from that which may be derived from drainage.
Trusting, then, that his pond will be filled from the skies, let
the digger select as flat a place as he can, and this, if not at the
lowest, will, I think, be more often found at the highest part of
a field than at any intermediate level. Above all things, let him
bear in mind that it is ahnost useless to dig a pond on the side
of a hill, where there is anything like a sharp fall below the
pond ; for the law of gravity will certainly cause the water to
oose out below, unless the subsoil is a regular stiff clay. Such,
and indeed most ponds, will hold plenty of water in winter ; but
our object is to discover one that will not fail in a dry summer.

Let us next briefly consider the third point, namely, the treat-
ment of the pond. The pond is too commonly left to take its
chance. When cattle want to drink, they are allowed to go into
it as far as they please ; if water from it is Avanted for another
place, the water-cart is backed down deep into its muddy bosom ;
and when, at the end of some dry summer, the pond also is found
to be dry, a few loads of mud are taken out of that part farthest
from the mouth, the sheltering bushes are cut down, and the pond
is declared to have been well cleaned out. Such treatment will,
no doubt, enable the pond to hold water till the next dry summer
comes, when in all probability it will again fail, and the unfor-
tunate proprietor will Avonder to himself and complain to his
neighbours that he cannot anyhow get his pond to hold water.
If, however, anyone will take the trouble to wade through this
essay, and adopt the course suggested by it, I can promise him
that he may, if he likes, wade also up to his neck in his own pond
at the end of the next dry summer, and the expense shall be less,
on an average of years, than he is now put to by the constant
expense of carting water from a distance, to say nothing of the
partial cleanings out, which under the old system occur so
frequently. I repeat, then, never on any account allow cattle to
go further into the pond than the edge of the pitching in the
mouth. To prevent this, it is absolutely necessary to have a line
of rails, or a chain, or some such obstacle, across eaclt mouth of
the pond. As regards the use of the Avater-cart, 1 need only
refer to Avhat I have before said on this subject. And lastly, as
regards cleaning out, I maintain that a pond made, placed, and

VOL. II. — S. S. I

114 Management of Ponds and Wells.

treated as 1 have recommended, will hardly ever require that
process. But if, in the course of thirty or forty years, it should
appear to be getting more choked up than is desirable, I would
advise the owner, instead of waiting till it dries itself, to take an
opportunity (say after harvest) of pumping out the water that may
be left. He might then leave it to dry for a few days, and as
soon as he begins to clean it out, let him put several hands on at
once and get the job done quickly and well, taking care to keej)
the bottom in its proper shape, and to repair the pitching and
rails if necessary. I have known so many instances where a pond
has been partly cleaned out, and the remainder of the work
stopped and spoilt by a heavy rain, that I wish to urge the advisa-
bility of not loitering over such a work. If rain comes on when
the mud has been removed from only a part of the pond, the
mud in the other part is again floated, and comes back to spread
itself over the clean, and so lower part. Where a large pond has
to be cleaned out, it is a great help to the men to attach a horse
by a long chain to the wheelbarrows. Each wheelbarrow, when
loaded, is placed on the plank ; the horse draws it up to the
tipping-place, where the man tips it, unfastens the chain, and
returns on the down plank, the horse also returning for the next
load.

I have now exhausted all the suggestions which I have to offer
about ponds ; but before quitting the subject I should like to add
a few words as to the great importance and desirability of having
a large deep reservoir close to every good homestead. I know of
a case where a landlord dug one for his tenant (the latter finding
the carting), and the very next year the tenant's stacks were all
burnt down by an incendiary, as is supposed ; and there is not
the slightest doubt but that all the landlord's buildings would
also have been consumed if there had not been a copious supply
of water from the reservoir, just dug, so close at hand. As it
was, the buildings were hardly injured at all. This, of course,
is an extreme case ; but the value of a good supply of water at
the commencement of a fire is almost beyond calculation. In
the eastern and midland counties it is generally difficult to get a
large natural supply of water at any distance from the villages,
which always congregate round the springs. But it is very
essential for farm-premises to be as near as possible to the centre
of the farm, often many miles away from any stream or spring.
A pond, then, or a well, is all that can be looked to for the stock
or for a fire ; and in the latter case a pond is, of the two, decidedly
the more useful, as several engines may be fed from it at the
same time, leaving plenty of room for labourers to dip their
buckets.

A deep well is very expensive to dig, besides the risk of not

Management of Ponds and Welh. 115

finding' water when jou have penetrated as far as means or
inelination allow ; and any well, where the Avater lies at more
than about 26 feet from the surface of the ground, requires a
costly pump. I consider, therefore, that for farm-buildings, where
there is no other supply, the best plan is to make a good wide
well (for a pump), about 26 or 28 feet deep, and to dig, a few
yards off, a really useful pond. Let all the water from the spout-
ing be conducted into the well, and make a waste-pipe from near
the top of the well into the pond. Thus, in a dry time, a shower
will fill the well first, and the surplus, if any, will be saved in
the pond.

I will conclude with some remarks on springs and wells in
connection with the water-supply in rural parishes. A well
without a spring is, in reality, only a covered pond, though,
l)eing covered, it suffers no loss from evaporation by either sun or
wind. In some places a well sunk to a given stratum will be
quite sure to find Avater, while in other localities the springs are
so precarious that one well may never fail, though another, a few
yards off, may be worthless. A gentleman of my acquaintance
had a tolerably good well, about 25 feet deep, which never failed
for many hours together, though it had no great supply. He
was wise enough not to tamper with this, but wanting more
water, dug another well a few yards off. Having dug down to
about 50 feet without finding any water at all, he bored down
still deeper, until at last the water rose into the bore with a great
rush, and he fancied he was going to have a grand supply. The
next morning, however, it had all vanished, and he could never
again get any water there. He had, in fact, tapped a spring,
which, almost as soon as it was tapped, lost itself again through
a vein of sand. Strange to say, the original well was in nowise
affected by the new one.

But here let me say a word of caution against a deception
which I have known to be practised by professional well-borers.
At a certain homestead a well was dug down to a limestone-rock
without finding any water ; the borers were then ordered to pierce
the rock till they did find water. The men accordingly spent
some days at the bottom of the well, and professed to have bored
to some unheard-of depth, but without success, and the job was
reluctantly given up. For some years the tenant was put to the
expense of carting water from a distance almost every day. At
last, however, he engaged a man, who had been successful with a
deep well in a neighbouring parish, to try and obtain water for
him. This man examined the well, and feeling sure that there
must be water in the rock, he began to excavate. The work had
proceeded very little way before he discovered that the original
borers had only-penetrated about two feet further than the well,

I 2

116 Management of Ponds and Wells.

tliough tlicy liad been paid for I don't know how many feet.
Encouraged by this discovery he renewed his work, and was very
soon rewarded by an ample supply of water.

We often see springs issuing from the ground and running to
waste, spoiling perhaps a considerable piece of ground before
their water is collected into a ditch or other channel. If the
owner would only take the trouble to follow the spring back into
the ground for a feet feet, and place in it a draining-tube which
should empty into a small tank or tub let into the soil, with a
waste-pipe at the opposite side, he might have an excellent
supply at a minimum of cost ; and two loads of stone, placed
round the tank to give firmness to the earth, would make it as
good a drinking-place as could be desired.

Again, in many places a brook, which is often dry or nearly
so in summer, may be made to give a certain and ample supply
all through the year by erecting sluices across it at intervals ;
and though the cost of this is considerable, yet it will often pay,
simply by making the brook a good fence instead of a bad one.

Lastly, a few words about spouting. Spouting is, I am Avell
aware, expensive in the first instance ; but were all the cottages
in a village and all the buildings on a farm well spouted, and the
water conducted into capacious tanks or wells, many places which
now constantly suffer from lack of water would hardly ever know
the want. And I think that at least half the cost of the spouting
would be saved in the item of repairs to the buildings ; for nothing
makes a wall more damp, or saps the foundations more surely,
than a dripping eave.

In conclusion, let me remark that, although we cannot actually
increase the supply of water which nature provides, nevertheless
by management we may obtain more of that supply for our own
use, and by care we can keep what we obtain.

Ilinchwich Hall, Wellingborough.

X. — On the Comparative Cheapness and Advantages of Iran and
Wood in the Construction of Roofs for Farm-Buildings. By
Arthur Bailey Denton (Junior).

Prize Essay.*

For some years past the minds of practical men have been
advancing towards a conviction that increased covering, under

* One of the Judges reports as follows : —

The opinions of the Essayists seem to be nearly unanimous on the following
points, viz. :

I, That timber grown upon estates in Great Britain should be disposed of for

Roofs for Farm-Buildings. 117

most conditions of climate, is advantageous alike to all the pro-
duce of the farm ; that, provided light and ventilation be given
with proper regard to temperatui'e, live stock will thrive better,
dead stock will last longer, manure will be better made and
preserved, and corn and hay crops will be better harvested and
brought into condition for sale, under permanent covering than
Avhen exposed to the elements, or left to the chances of being
thatched at the right season.

The acceptance of this truth prevails with greater or less
force as we pass from the cold of the north and the rain of the
west, towards the warmth of the south and the dryness of the
east, and as we recognise the degree of necessity that may exist
for economising straw.

It is not my present purpose to dwell on the value, in a
commercial sense, of covering fold-yards, stock-yards, or manure-
heaps, though it might be easily shown that in each case true
economy is best served by the provision of a greater extent of
roofing or shelter than now generally prevails.

It is upon the assumption that, at no distant period, the
covering of yards will be generally recognised as the rule rather
than as the exception, that the comparison about to be given has
been extended beyond the roofs of ordinary farm-buildings to
those suitable for spaces, which, fifty years ago, it would have
been considered the height of extravagance to think of covering.

To make the necessary comparisons of cost, it is desirable to
classify the roofs according to the materials employed.

Thus : 1st. Timber roofs, constructed wholly of wood.

2nd. Timber and iron roofs, constructed partly of wood and
partly of iron.

3rd. Iron roofs, constructed wholly of iron.

And it will be necessary to recognise a difference in the
roofing of ordinary farm-buildings (apart from the covering of
yards) by distinguishing the single-floored buildings, for which a
standard width of 20 feet, outside measurement, has been taken,"

othei- purposes, and good Baltic timber only employed in the roofs of farm-
buildings.

2. That for roofs of a span not exceeding 30 feet, there is no economy in using
iron in combination with wood, and still less iron alone.

3. That iron does not answer as a roof-covering, unless, perhaps, corrugated
iron, and in exceptional cases.

* The standard widths here selected are taken from ' The Farm Homesteads
of England,' a work recently published by Messrs. Chapman and Hall, of Picca-
dilly. In the " Golden Rules," Nos. 2 and 4, p. 145, the following passages
occur: — "All lateral single-storied buildings should, if possible, be made of one
breadth ; 20 feet outside measurement (brickwork) is considered the best width.
The advantage of an uniform width is found to consist in the capability of con-
version from one purpose to another, as necessity for alteration or extension
arises. All the higher buildings should be of one uniform width. The outside

418 Roofs for Farm-Buildings.

from the double-floored buildings, for which a general width
of 24 feet, inside measurement, has been selected.

In dealing with yards intended for internal subdivision, there
is room for much difference of treatment. Where the appro-
priation of the space can be definitely pre-arranged, the character
of the roof can be determined accordingly, and the evil avoided
of placing storey posts or columns in places where they may
afterwards be found in the Avay.

Roofs constructed of wide spans to avoid the inconvenience of
internal columns, are open to the serious objection that while
they are more expensive, the shelter is less complete, and that
where erected in exposed situations they are more subject to
injury from wind, as well as to changes of temperature, than
roofs of small spans.

Before bringing into notice the different roofs offered for illus-
tration, a few words on some leading principles are necessary to
simplify comparison.

The desiderata governing the materials and construction of
the roofs of all farm-buildings are, strength and durability, an
equable temperature, and a comfortable and cheerful appearance
in conjunction with economy of cost. All embellishment should
be avoided ; the best appearance of farm-buildings being that in
which symmetry of proportion is combined with propriety of
the design with reference to the object of the buildings.

The attainment of these advantages will depend on the nature
of the covering, which will rule the form and strength of the
framework, and consequently the cost of the whole structure.
This general observation includes the " pitch " of the roof,
which essentially depends on the covering material employed.
Much has been written and said upon this point, and most
elaborate tables have been prepared, to prove that the angle of
roofs should vary with climate. Without, however, entering
upon, or endorsing such a refinement as this, we may accept
the following "pitches" as correct for various descriptions of
covering.

1st. For straw roofs a pitch equal to one-half of the span ;
2nd. For tile roofs of all kinds, a pitch equal to one-third ; 3rd.
For slate roofs a pitch equal to one-fourth ; and 4th. For iron
coverings of all kinds, a pitch equal to about one-fifth of the
span.

The following is a statement of the weight per square of 100

width will vary according to the materials used ; but the best width, measured
from the internal walls, is 24 feet. This is found to admit of alteration with the
least disturbance of the external shell, and it is well to anticipate a possible re-
division of the buildings consequent upon improvements in macliinery."

Roofs for Farm- Buildings.

119

feet (10 feet x 10 feet) of the various roofing materials referred
to, with the relative cost of each : —

Character

of the Covermg.

Weight
per square of 100 feet

(10 feet X 10 feet)
of the covering only.

Cost of Materials
per square of 100 feet

of covering only,

.exclusive of labour,

nails, laths, &c., delivered

on the ground.

Cost of
covering materials
at the Builder's _,
yard.

£. s. d.

£. s.

Plain tiles

15 cv/t.

14 9

1 12 per 1000.

Slates (countess) . .
Iron (sheet) . .
Iron (corrugated) ..

6 cwt.
253 lbs.
318 lbs.

18 4
2 5
2 19

9 10 per 1000.

18 15 per ton.

19 10 per tou.

These several prices, as well as the prices of timber, which
will be subsequently given, are quoted as a datum or standard
for the cost of roofs, worked out in detail hereafter, sinijdy for
the jmrpose of comparison, and they are based upon the assumption
that the best materials and workmanship will be employed.
They must be accepted with the general reservation, that they
will vary Avith the market prices of different localities, which
will sometimes be lower or perhaps higher than the prices
quoted.

The effective value of different materials used for covering
will vary ; each is found to possess some counteracting quality :
thus straw, which best preserves an equable temperature beneath,
is a wasteful and perishable material for thatch, deprives the
farmer of the more legitimate application of straw as fodder
and manure, and should, therefore, be discarded from further
consideration. Tiles, both plain and pantiles, preserve an
excellent temperature beneath them, and, particularly so, when
laid upon straw or reed. A preference will be given to plain
tiles over pan tiles, because the latter, although somewhat cheaper,
are apt to be blown off, and, under general circumstances, pre-
sent a less pleasing appearance. Plain tiles, on the contrary,
have a decidedly neat appearance and agreeable colour, but
they are heavy, comparatively with slate, and require to be laid
to a higher pitch.

Slates are economical, because, as just stated, they admit of
a reduced pitch, and are very durable, but they are quick con-
ductors of heat and cold, unless laid on boards, when they
become a very superior, though expensive covering.

Iron covering, consisting of rolled sheet iron, is a ready con-
ductor of heat and cold, and, therefore, must be laid on boards,
when it forms an expensive covering. This fact, in conjunction
with its readiness to corrode, renders sheet iron, though galva-
nised, inapplicable to farm-buildings*

120 Roofs for Farm-Buildincjs.

The objection to iron as a covering, however, does not apply
in the same degree to arched corrugated iron, where the strength
thus given to the material renders the employment of trusses
unnecessary. It has therefore been much recommended on the
score of lightness and cheapness. But experience has proved
that it is not durable, particularly when used as covering for
buildings where stock are confined ; in such cases the corrosion
which ensues is, no doubt, in a great measure caused by the
vapours which arise from all animals, and from their manure,
which influences even galvanism is powerless to resist.

The weight that a roof has to support is of two kinds : one
constant, and the other variable. The first is the weight of the
roof itself, and the second consists of the external pressure of wind
and rain, and the weight of snow when it occurs. The allowance
due for wind is taken at about 7 or 8 lbs. per square foot, and
for snow at about 5 or 6 lbs. Altogether the weight of the roof,
together with the variable pressure of wind, rain, &c., varies
from about 23 lbs. as a minimum, to 40 lbs. as a maximum
per square foot, the latter is commonly taken as the basis of
calculation.*

The scantlings of the timbers of roofs, sanctioned by the
Inclosure Commissioners for England and Wales have been
adopted in the several illustrations and comparisons given in
this Essay, and as they form the rule for all landowners, who as
tenants for life desire to erect farm-buildings, and charge their
estates with the cost, it has been considered well to give the
Commissioners' minutes verbatim.

" In all cases where fir timber is used, that obtained from
Memel or Norway, and battens from Dram, St. Petersburg,
or other Norway or Baltic ports, is to be preferred.

" All oak used to be of English growth.

" No timber to be placed nearer to the inside of any flue than
one foot,

" All timbers to be cut die square, and to hold the scantlings
specified when finished.

* M. Mathieu, a French engineer, in the ' Annales de la Construction ' for
•1863, malces the following calculations on the same point : —

'' If a roof be of slate, we may reckon that the maximum pressure under the
most unfavourable circumstances amounts to 125 kilos, per square metre, dis-
tributed as follows : —

Kil.

Weight of slates, laths, &c -ir)

,, of framework of roof, &c. 45

,, of snow 25

Pressure (ordinary) of wind 20

125."

This is equal to nearly 28 lbs. per square foot.

Roofs for Farm-Buildings.

121

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Timber Roofs, framed ichollij of wood. — From causes which
need no explanation, timber has been almost exclusively used
for roofs in this country up to the commencement of the present
century ; and timber-framed roofs will still be preferred, to the

122 Roofs for Farm-Buildiiujs.

exclusion of iron, under certain circumstances. Where wood is
plentiful, of good quality, and suitable character and growth, it
is decidedly cheaper and better, as will hereafter be shown, for
roofs of small spans, not exceeding 30 feet in width, than either
wood and iron in union, or iron by itself.

Wood is known to preserve a more equable temperature than
iron. Live stock are therefore better housed under wood than
iron ; and as buildings for stock seldom exceed 20 feet in width,
the health and comfort of the stock afford additional reasons to
that of economy of cost, for the use of timber in these buildings.

It is a great mistake to suppose that wood, when fairly dealt
with, is a less durable material than iron. Timber of suitable
character and growth, properly protected when placed in the
roof, will last for centuries ; and while iron is known to corrode
from exhalations rising from live stock and manure, timber,
under the same influences, will show no symptoms of decay.

This admission of the inapplicability of iron for the roofing of
cattle-sheds is not made in disparagement of its use in its proper
place. It is the abuse of timber that has brought discredit upon
it. Landowners, in their eagerness to use timber grown upon
their estates, frequently employ elm and ash, and sometimes
poplar and lime, for the roofing of farm homesteads, and these
in an unseasoned condition.

This indiscriminate use of home-grown timber has led to rapid
decay in the shape of dry-rot, and to ugly, distorted roofs by
reason of the Avarping of fresh-felled wood ; thus turning anti-
cipated cheapness into decided waste. How often do we see
used in farm-buildings immature larch, Aveighing 35 lbs. to the
cubic foot, in connection with heavy oak, weighing upwards of
50 lbs. to the cubic foot, without due regard to the difference of
weight and quality, conditions contradictory enough in them-
selves to weaken the best-designed roof.

Practical experience indeed has proved that true economy is
opposed to the use of home-grown timber for roofing, and that
it is better to sell the wood produced on estates for appropriate
uses, and to resort to Baltic timber for the framework of roofs.
For this preference two excellent reasons may be assigned : the
first is, its superior adaptability, strength, and durability when
compared with the ill-grown, sappy, English timber generally
employed ; the second is, its superior condition for immediate
use, owing to its being always seasoned in some degree by the time
taken in its preparation and transport to this country. Through-
out the examples which illustrate the employment of timber, it
is assumed that foreign timber of the kind just specified is
used, and that the cost is calculated at the following prices : —

Roofs for Farm-Buildings. 123

Per foot
Cube.

Baltic fir : — s. d.

When framed 3 4

Unframed for Plates 2 10

Cost price in builder's yard 2 7

Wood, however, it should be understood, only deserves the
preference, to the exclusion of iron, for spans limited to 30 feet.
It is true that wrought-iron rods, with cast-iron rafters, shoes, and
junctions, are introduced into the trusses of the smallest spans ;
but this is simply a fashion opposed to economy. They insure
an apj^earance of lightness by the reduced size of the tie and
suspending-rods, when compared with the wood they displace ;
though they are so heavy when all the metal is weighed as to
directly defeat the object professedly aimed at. If this is found
to be the case when the materials are compared in the scales, the
preference for wood is still more decided with respect to cost of
labour, as will be seen by a comparison of the cheapest examples
of each character of roofing. The examples given of timber
roofs for 20 feet span (outside measurement) are shown on
Sheet 1, and are four in number. The cheapest is Fig. 1,
adapted for slate, and is that most generally adopted by those
architects who are more influenced by a regard for economy than
appearance. The cost of this roof will be found to be 8/. per
bay of 10 feet, including one truss, or 4/. ?>s. 6d. per square
(10 feet X 10 feet) of roof, or 4/. lis. 8d. for each square of
ground (10 feet X 10 feet) covered.

The examples of roofs of 20 feet span, outside measurement,
will be found to cost as below : —

Cost of Roofing complete per square of 100 feet (10 X 10).

Sheet 1.

: Calculated on the angle of the Roof.

Calculated on the horizontal
space covered.

Fig. 1 .. .
„ 2 .. .
„ 3 .. .

„ 4 .. .

£. S. d.

. Slates 4 3 6

. Do 4 9 7

. 1 Do 4 15 10

. Plain tiles .. .. 3 17 1

£. s. d.
4 11 8

4 18 2

5 10 6
5 1

The examples of timber roofs of 24 feet span, inside measure-
ment, are shown on the same sheet, and are four in number.
The cheapest of these is Fig. 5, which is often used in spans
from 20 to 30 feet, adapted for slate, and is of the ordinary king-
post construction ; the cost is 4/. as. 4c?. per square, or 4/. 15s. lOd.
per square of ground (10 x 10) covered. Fig. 6 is somewhat

124

Roofs for Farm-Buildimis.

more expensive, but still of moderate cost. Tliis form of truss
lias been much objected to on the ground that its construction
is contrary to scientific principles ; but its cheapness of cost, in
additit)!! to the fact that it gives head-room, has often led to
its adoption. This roof will be found to cost 4Z. 7^. 6(Z. per
square.

The examples of roofs of 24 feet span, inside measurement,
will be found to cost as below : —

'

Cost of Roofing

complete per square of 100 feet (10X10.)

Sheet 1.

Calculated on

the an

gle of the Roof.

Calculated on the horizontal
space covered.

Fig. 5 .. ..
„ 6 .. ..
„ i .. ..
„ 8 .. ..

Slates ..
Do. ..
Do. ..
Do. ..

.. .

£. S. d.
.434

.476
.476
.563

£. .s. d.

4 15 10

5 10
5 10
5 16 8

As I have stated that all roofs of a span not exceeding 30 feet
in width are better constructed of timber than of iron, it might be
assumed that this rule applied to roofs of double-storied build-
ings, without exception ; but this is not exactly the case, as there
are instances in which iron suspending-rods may be advan-
tageously used in supporting the floor from the trusses of a
timber- framed roof.

The following example of a granary, on the late Lord Pal-
merston's Broadlands estate, shows how this idea has been
carried out (see p. 125).

Again, a timber roof, formed by arched trusses of laminated
deals, might be given as an exception, in which the use of iron
may be advantageously limited to two iron rods, which tie the
ends of the trusses, and at the same time support the floor. This
roof and floor, shown on Sheet 2, Fig. 9, by cross and longi-
tudinal sections, are specially applicable to granaries in which
head-room is required ; and may be compared with a granary
roof on the same sheet. Fig. 10, of a queen-post construction,
made wholly of wood, where the tie-beam also forms the floor,
which will be found to cost less than the former example by
about 10s. per square (10 x 10) of ground covered.

Beyond a span of 30 feet, the requisite strength is obtained,
when timber only is used, by scantlings, v/hich not only give an
exceedingly heavy and objectionable appearance to the roof, but
are practically so much more heavy than wrought iron of equal
strength as to require walls of a greater thickness, and therel'ore

Roofs for Farm- Buildings.

125

of greater cost, than would be required with an appropriate intro-
duction of iron into the truss. This will be shown when 1 treat
of roofs of mixed materials.

The timber roofs suitable for yards and wide spaces are shown
on Sheet 3. They are three in number, viz. : Fig. 11, a roof
with a span of 50 feet, the cost of Avhich will be found to be '61.
per square, or 6Z. 15^. 6c?. per square of ground (10 x 10)
covexed. Fig. 12, a roof divided into 25 feet spans, supported
on wooden storey posts, the cost of which will be 4/. 18^. per
square, or 5/. 14s. Id. per square of ground (10 x 10) covered
— which shows that by adopting two spans for one in timber-
framed roofs, the price is reduced very considerably ; and thirdly
a roof of somewhat novel construction. In this example the
principals, which have a bearing of 24 feet, are placed at intervals
of 12 feet. The trusses are framed with a glass front of rough
agricultural glass. This arrangement, which secures a perfect
light throughout the yard, is shown by the plan and sections of
Fig. 13. It will be found to cost 5Z. 4s. 2d. per square, or
6/. 19s. Id. per square of ground (10 x 10) covered.

Timber and Iron Eoofs, framed j)arthj of Wood and -partly

126 Roofs for Farm-Buihlhifjs.

of Iron. — Iron enters into tlic construction of roofs in two foinis
— firstly, in tlie shape of corrugated or sheet iron, as a covering
material, which is elsewhere treated of; and secondly, as part
of the framework, in the form of cast and wrought iron, which
we will now proceed to discuss.

The relative properties of cast and wrought iron are thus
described by Mr, Fairbairn : —

" Cast iron is a hard, rigid, crystalline, immalleable substance,
which presents a great resistance to a force of extension, but a
somewhat less resistance to that of compression ; and from its
low degree of ductility, it undergoes but little elongation when
acted upon by tensile force. On the contrary, wrought iron is
a flexible, malleable, ductile substance, which presents a great
resistance to a force of extension, but a somewhat less resistance
to that of compression. From its high degree of ductility, it
undergoes a considerable elongation when acted upon by a tensile
hn-ce. When the two metals are released from the action of a
tensile force, the set of the one metal differs widely from the set
of the other. The flexibility of wrought iron is from eight to
ten times greater than that of cast iron. Under the same increase
of temperature the expansion of wrought-iron is considerably
greater than that of cast iron. While wrought iron yields to a
stroke, cast iron is readily broken by a severe collision, or by
any vibratory action."

The slight resistance that cast iron, as compared with wrought
iron, offers to tensile strains or sudden influences, and its crystalline,
brittle, and inflexible character preclude its employment in long
lengths, where yielding elastic qualities are required ; while its
great resistance to the force of compression indicates its adapta-
bility for struts, braces, and straining-bars. But there are two great
drawbacks to the employment of cast iron, even in these forms :
the first is the weight, the second is the cost in consequence of
the weight. Cast iron weighs about 450 lbs. per cubic foot,
while the weight of a cubic foot of Memel fir is only 34Vlbs.
The former is consequently about 13 times heavier than w^ood
of equal dimensions. The average cost of iron ready for the
founder is 1/. 2s. 6c?. per cubic foot, whereas the cost of a cubic
foot of Baltic fir ready for the sawyer is 2.?. Id. — thus making
the cost of iron 9 times greater than that of wood of equal bulk.
In addition to this it must be remembered that the cost of casting
iron for struts or straining-bars is three times dearer than the
expense of manual labour in preparing wood for like purposes.

The figures relative to the weight and cost of iron and wood
are given by way of preliminary contrast, but do not of course in
themselves convey any tangible results, nor supply direct data

Roofs for Farm-Bidldinfjs. 127

for application ; tliis is better shown by a practical instance. For
example, in Fig. 24, Sheet 5, a roof of 50 feet span shows a
timber strut 4 feet long. This member contains 1152 cubic
inches, weighs 23 lbs,, and would cost when worked and fixed
2s. 2d. ; a strut of cast iron of equal strength, but containing
only 366 cubic inches, would weigh 96 lbs., and would cost,
taking the lowest price of casting with fixing, 12^. Hence, it
follows that economy is better displayed by the use of wood than
cast iron, though so much more material is used. If wc consider,
too, that the risk of an accident from an imperfect casting or a
sudden change in the temperature, which may compromise the
whole structure, is much greater than if wood were used, we
show sufficient reasons why the employment of cast iron should
not supersede that of wood for struts in the framework of roofs
which do not exceed the ordinary limits of agricultural buildings.
For the smaller parts and adjuncts of a truss, however, such as
rafter-shoes and junctions, which are many times used in the
same form in any considerable length of roofing, and which are
better moulded and more economically made of cast-iron than
of any other material, the use of that metal is unquestionably
desirable ; but the preference of cast iron ends with these minor
parts of the roof.

Wrought iron, though not economically admissible in small-
spanned roofs, has much to recommend it in connection with
timber in roofs of larger spans than 30 feet, for those members of
a truss which serve to resist tensile strain, cast iron being used in the
minor parts before enumerated, and timber for those members in
which rigidity is essential. The advantage of using wrought iron
instead of timber for tie and suspending rods will be understood
when it is stated, that while Baltic fir will only bear a straining
force of 2500 lbs. per inch, wrought iron may be safely strained
by 50,000 lbs. per inch, as stated by Tredgold ; or by 60,000 lbs.,
according to Fairbairn, which shows the superior strength of iron
to be from 20 to 24 to 1 as compared with wood. Hence, where
rigidity is not required, and the width of the span is sufficient to
admit of its adoption with economy, wrought iron may take the
place of wood in proportion of 1 for 20 in size ; and as iron is
only 13^ times heavier, and only 9 times dearer than wood of
equal bulk, the advantage both of weight and cost is in favour
of iron : but these figures apply to the tension-rods only. When
the rafter-shoes and junctions are taken into consideration, the
amounts of weight and cost are altered. An examination of
the examples given will show the actual cost of different forms.

The illustrations given on Sheet 4, of timber and iron roofs
for 20 feet spans, outside measurement, are four in number, three

128

Roofs for Farm-Bidldinrjs.

ol' which arc adapted to slate coverinG:, and one to tiles. The
cheapest of these is Fig. 14. It is the common king-rod truss, in
which a wrought-ivon rod takes the place of a wooden post. Its
cost will be found to be M. bs. bd. per square of roofing or 5/.
per square of ground (10 x 10) covered. This example of com-
bined materials, when compared with the cheapest roof of the
same span framed wholly of Avood, shows a difference of Id. per
square foot of ground covered in favour of timber.

The next example (Fig. 15) is a form of truss much adopted,
for roofs of from 20 to 30 feet span, in France ; but, as far as the
writer's experience extends, it is not much used in this country.
The tie-rods are double ; and this arrangement reduces the iron
employed to a minimum in size.

The examples of 20 feet span (outside measurement), which
include two roofs Nos. 15 and 16, in which the slates are laid
upon boards, are as follow : —

Sheet 4.

Cost of Roofing coniiilete per square of 100 feet (10 X 10).

Calculated on the angle of the Koof.

Calculated on the horizontal
space covered.

Fig

5>

14 .. ..

15 .. ..

16 .. ..

17 .. ..

£. s. d.

Slates 4 5 5

Do 4 17 11

Do 5 4 2

riaiu tiles .. .. 4 11 8

£. s.
5
5 12

5 IG

6 5

d.

6
8

The examples of timber and iron roofs used for 24 feet spans,
inside measurement^ are also four in number, but any one of the
preceding examples for 20 feet spans might safely be extended
to wider spans, with a proportional increase of dimensions and
cost. The prices of the four examples are as follow : —

Cost of Roofing complete per square of 100 feet (10 X 10).

Sheet 4.

Calculated on the angle of the Roof.

Calculated on the horizontal
space covered.

■ Fi-. 18 .. ..

,: 10 .. ..

„ 20 .. ..
„ 21 .. ..

£. s. d.

Slates 5

Do 5 4 2

Plain tiles .. .. 4 19 6
Do 4 15 10

£. s. d.
5 12 6
5 IG 8
5 17 6
5 15 8

Three examples of economical arrangement of wrought iron
in the roofing of agricultural buildings are shown in Sheet 5.
In these iustances wrought-iron rods take the place of tie-beams

Roofs for Fa rm-Bu ildings.

129

and suspending-rods ; timber is used for the rafters and struts,
and cast iron for the shoes and junctions, but in each case the
quantity of materials is reduced to a mininmm.

Fig 22, is a roof of 35 feet span ; it is useful as providing
head-room, and has a light appearance. A roof constructed in
this form may be seen at Uphampton Home Farm, belonging
to Lord Bateman. The cost of this roofing will be 6/. 8^. per
square, or GZ. 19^. ()d. per square of ground (10 X 10) covered.
Fig. 23, is a roof for a like span ; it has been constructed by the
General Land Drainage and Improvement Company at Burleigh,
Hertfordshire. The cost is 5Z. 125. 6fZ. per square of roofing,
or 6Z. 17^. 6fZ. per square of ground (10 x 10) covered. Fig. 24
is an example of a light and cheap double tie-rod roof, on
thi; plan recommended by Colonel Emy, the French engineer.
Sheet 6 illustrates the covering of yards and large spaces. The
prices of the several examples will be as follow : —

Cost of Roofing complete per square of 100 feet (10 X 10).

Sheet 6.

Calculated on the angle of the Roof.

Calculated on the horizontal ;
space covered.

Fig. 25 .. ..
„ 26 .. ..
„ 27 .. ..

£. s. d.

Slates "G 10

Do G 7 2

Do G 5

£. s. d.

C^ 13 4
6 18 G
G 13 6

Iron Roofs. — The words " Iron Roofs " are generally under-
stood to mean those roofs in which both covering and frame-
work are wholly of iron, although when speaking of timber
roofs, the designation applies to the framework only, since no
one concludes that the covering is made of wood.

In treating this branch of the subject it may be better, without
discussing terms, to repeat that iron covering, for reasons already
given, is deemed inapplicable to agricultural buildings, except
in the case of corrugated iron, in which the circular form it
generally assumes, renders support by framework unnecessary.

The reason why iron frameicork for the support of the covering
is not resorted to will be manifest on an examination of the
following examples with the relative cost.

They are six in number, as shown on Sheet 7. Fig. 28 is
constructed altogether of rolled flat iron. The principals are
placed 6 feet apart, and the boards which carry the slates are
laid from principal to principal.

The remaining examples of roofs of this span are constructed
of rolled "y-iron rafters, purlins, and struts.

VOL. II. — S. S. K

130 Roofs for Farm-Buildings.

Here the boards are laid upon the purlins, and the principals
are 10 feet apart. The cost of these several examples, including
the covering as mentioned in the preceding examples, will he
found to be as below : —

Cost of Roofing
complete per square

Sheet 7, : (lo x lo).

Fig. 28 £7 8 8

„ 29 7 13 9

„ 30 8 4

„ 31 .. ■ 8 10 8

„ 32 8 7 4

„ 33 9 10

These figures, when compared with the preceding examples of
timber-framed roofs, prove that it is not economical to resort to
iron framework in small spans. Of roofs of 24 feet span,
inside measurement, two examples are given. Fig. 35 is con-
structed of rolled "^-iron for the rafters and purlins, and of flat
rolled iron for the ties and struts. The cost of this example will
be found to be 6/. 10a\ 6f/. per square of roofing. Fig. 34 is the
more expensive example, and is constructed of rolled "y-iron for
the rafters, purlins, and struts, and rod-iron for the ties and
bolts. The cost of this roof will be found to be 6Z. 15,s. Id. per
square of roofing. For roofing of yards and large spaces two
specimens are given on Sheet 8. Fig. 36 represents an arrange-
ment where rolled "y-iron is employed for the rafters and struts,
and round iron for the tie-rods. The principals are placed 6
feet apart, purlins are dispensed with, but, as in a preceding ex-
ample, boards stretch from truss to truss. The cost of this roof
is y/. 2^. \{)d. per square of roofing. The second illustration,
Fig. 37, is of cheaper construction: — three spans in this instance
taking the place of two as in the previous case. The cost of this
roof will be found to be 8Z. 11.9. lOd. per square.

Many of our ablest civil engineers have used iron framework
for the roofing of railway stations, but as these roofs are generally
of large span, and the object for which they are used sanctions
more than ordinary outlay, they form no precedent for adoption
in agricultural buildings.

Mr. Hawkshaw, the President of the Institution of Civil En-
gineers has thought it necessary to warn his brother engineers
against the use of iron, even when galvanised, for roofs. It
should be observed that his observations have reference more
to covering than to framework, but they are so decided that they
cannot be discarded from consideration. He says, " the result of
not more than four years' wear was such as to convince him
(Mr. Hawkshaw), that galvanised-iron ought never to be used for

Roofs for Farm Buildings. 131

coverino^ in or near large towns. His experience of it had been
such that he had determined never to use it again ; and he
thought it worth while for those who were constructing roofs of
that description, to be careful how they employed that material
for roofing in a humid climate, and Avhere coal is used for
fuel."

But though this advice applies to all iron covering, we must
make a modified exception in the case of corrugated iron, which
decidedly forms the cheapest of roofs (in its first cost), and,
therefore, under special circumstances, may be applicable.

The advantage claimed by its supporters are (1) strength,
(2) lightness, (3) cheapness, (4) portability, and (5) simplicity
of construction, and there is no doubt that in some measure
these qualities are rightly applied, for the arched form in which
corrugated iron is used does away with the necessity of any
framework beyond a few iron ties to keep the covering in its
circular form ; it has a light appearance, and can be readily
fixed to spans not exceeding 35 feet.

Fig, 38, on Sheet 8, exemplifies this statement. The cost of
this roofing will be found to be 3Z. 05. per square of roofing.
These figures, however, should not be taken as representing the
actual cost, as it is necessary, in order to preserve corrugated
roofing, to paint it frequently.

Still we can believe, that with such a difference of first cost
it may be advantageously adopted in situations free from damp
and Aapour, and where durability is not of the first importance.

COXCLUSIOX. — Such being the inferences which we have
deduced from our experience, which the different examples of
roofs given in this Essay will support, it is only necessary
here to repeat, briefly, that timber-framed roofs are the best
and most economical for spans not exceeding 30 feet ; that
directly the width of 30 feet is reached, a judicious introduction
of iron into the truss reduces the cost, and by giving superior
lightness, improves the roof; and that iron alone can only be
emploved for the covering of agricultural buildings in very
exceptional cases, and never economically for the framework.

22, Whitehall Place, Westminster.

K 2

Sheet 1.

Fin. 1

I

Foe Slates.

-20 ' O

- la' ■ e'

TIMBER ROOFS.

For Slates.

For Slates.

For Slates.

For Slates.

For Slates on Boards.

For Tiles.

Fifi. 4.

Fig. 8.

For Slates.

The Scantlings of Timbers shown on this Sheet accord with the Schedule of the
luclosurc Commissioners. — See page 121.

TIMBER ROOFS.

Sheet 2.

Fig. 9.
For Slates

Tlie Scantlings of Timbers shown on this Sheet accord with the Schedule of tlie
Inclosure Commissioners. — See page 121.

Sheet 3.

TIMBER ROOFS.

Fig. 13.

SECTION FROM A TC3 B

The Scantlings of Timbers shown on this Sheet accord with the Schedule
of the Inclosure Commissioners. — See page 121.

TIMBER AND IRON ROOFS.

Sheet 4.

Foe Slates.

Fig. n.

Fig. 18,

Foe Slates.

Foe Slates ok Boaeds.
Fia. 15.

Foe Slates.

Foe Slates on Boaeds.
Fig. 1G.

For Tiles.

Fob Tiles.

Foe Tiles.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 21.

^ ^

^v

0^

-^. — —^ ~~^ —

^

'^^^v

^^^C

^^

"^^^'^^ \

\ .

^^^^

-"~s- ~^---;::r--

— zz:^- — -^^*

1

i

1

m

m

B

The Scantlings of Timbers shown on this Sheet accord with the Shedule
of the Inclosure Coramissioners. — See page 121 .

TIMBER AND IRON ROOFS.

Sheet 5.

For Slates on BoAUDi?.

Fig. 22

Fon Tiles.

Fig. 23

For Slates on Boaees.

The Scantlings of Timbers shown on this Sheet accord with the Schedtile
of the Inclosure Commissioners. — See page 12].

Sheet 6.

IRON ROOFS.

FOK SLATES ON BOARDS.

Sheet 7.

Fig. 28

Fig. 31.

Fig. 3i.

IRON ROOFS.

Sheet 8.

Fig. 3C.

FoK Slates on Boaiids.

Fig. 37.

FoK Slates on Boakds.

Fig. 38.

COKRUGATED IkOK,

( 140 )

XI. — On the Comparative Chca]mcss and Advantages of Iron and
Wood in the Construction of Roojs for Farm- Buildings. By
Philip D. Tuckett, Land Agent and Surveyor.

The inquiry whether iron roofs are not as applicable to farm
buildings as to railway stations, warehouses, tScc,, is so natural in
itself, and was so often put before me by friends and clients, that
I was induced, for my own satisfaction and guidance, to go into
a series of detailed calculations as to cost, scantlings, &c., the
results of which are given below. I approached the subject with
no prepossessions on either side, and a perfectly unbiassed judg-
ment, or, if anything, with some natural feeling of sympathy for
the newer and less bulky material.
Iron may be applied —

1. As a roof-covering in place of slate, tiles or other material,

2. In the framing or main construction of a roof instead of
timber, and irrespective of the material of the roof-covering.

I. As a roof-covering, plain or corrugated iron can be con-
structed at a very moderate cost, but the objections to its use are
numerous.

Galvanised sheet-iron, of which these roofs are generally
formed, should theoretically be free from rust, but the coating
of zinc which the iron receives in this process is scarcely ever so
pure and uniform as to secure this result, and unless pretty
Irequently painted or otherwise coated (an inconvenient and
expensive liability) the iron is very liable to rust through in
a {g\y years, producing leaks, which involve constant trouble and
cost in repairing. Its expansion and contraction under alterations
of temperature is another objection, especially in the case of plane
iron, rendering it liable to "buckle up" if not very carefully
laid, and also tending to the bulging out of the side walls or
other supports on which it is placed ; the difficulty of inserting
skylights, when the roof is curved, is a smaller inconvenience.
But perhaps the two chief objections to the use of iron for farm.-
buildings are: First. That, being a good conductor of heat, it
exposes the live stock to needless extremes of heat and cold ; and
Secondly, That, treat it how you will, it seems difficult to avoid
positive ugliness, and this is hardly excusable in farm-buildings,
however plain, especially if they are connected with a country
house.

For these reasons iron must clearly wholly be condemned as a
roof-covering for agricultural buildings.

That a roof either of corrugated or plain sheet-iron can be put
up at a moderate price will be seen by reference to the specimen
roofs, Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, described below ; but Nos. 1 and 2

Roofs for Farm-Buildings, 141

are also given, not as thoroughly good roofs, but to show that, if
reduced cost be the object, a light roof calculated to last for
a number of years, and free frora many of the ol)jections to
iron as a heat conductor, &c., can be easily put up at a still
smaller cost.

II. The employment of iron instead of timber in the framing
or main construction of a building is advantageous, when a
building exceeding 30 or 35 feet in width has to be roofed without
internal supports. In tlie buildings of an ordinary homestead
there is none that admits of such a span ; and in the case of
covered yards (the benefits of which are likely to be more and
more appreciated) although a single roof might be resorted to,
yet advantage may always be taken of a line of fencing for a set
of story-posts or columns without interfering with the yards, and
a series of open gables of moderate dimensions, with ornamental
barge-boards, may be made to present a more pleasing elevation
than a higher roof in one span, whilst its cost will always be less
whether of iron or timber. Good and efficient roofs of moderate
span, such as suit a farm, may be easily framed either in timber or
iron. On the score of appearance there will be little to choose
between them ; from the outside the roof-timbers are entirely
invisible, even in the case of an open gable being concealed by
a barge-board, and as to the look of the outside, tastes may well
differ.

Some proprietors may be influenced by the consideration that
timber can be found upon the estate, but I attach no weight to
this, because I am fully satisfied that roofs should always be
framed from foreign fir, that of English growth being reserved
for weather-boards, fencing, and other purposes, where its warp-
ing will not involve serious damage to the main structure of
the building ; I have known numerous instances in which a new
roof has been required after only a few years, in consequence
of the injudicious saving of the few pence per foot, which re-
present the difference in price between English and foreign
timber.

Whether a roof be framed of sound foreign fir, or of rolled and
wrought iron, it should, if properly treated, be nearly equally
durable ; on the one hand the iron will require occasional
painting to prevent rust (of which 40 tons are said to have been
scraped off the Britannia Bridge) ; on the other, if the roof-
covering is neglected, and the rain allowed to run down the
timbers, the Avood will perhaps first suffer ; but except through
negligence, either may be considered as practically permanent.

Unless every part of a building is of fire-proof construction,
there is no special advantage in a roof framed of iron. For a fire
can hardly originate in the roof-timbers, whilst when a fire has

142 Roofs for Farm-Buildiiigs.

attained a sufficient height to burn the roof, the heated iron will
bend and twist in a way that will destroy the building quite as
quickly as in the other case. It is said that the London Fire
Brigade have a great aversion to iron construction, and feel much
less safe in such buildings when on fire.

The expansion and contraction of iron principals in ordinary
changes of temperature, is sometimes regarded as an objection,
as tending to weaken the walls ; but, if sufficient play is allowed
for this in the construction, I do not think any inconvenient
results are to be apprehended. The question, then, whether iron
or wood should be used in the frame of a roof resolves itself into
one of cost.

With a view of arriving at a reliable conclusion on this
point, I have supposed a building 50 feet long by 20 feet broad,
which may be taken to represent an average farm-building, to be
covered with a span roof, and I append descriptions of eleven
different roofs of this size, Avith estimates of their cost. The first
seven refer to the first part of the subject, the coverings of roofs ;
the last four to their frame, be it iron or wood. Nos. 10 and 11
are thoroughly 2(;e//-constructed roofs, covered with countess
slating laid on close boarding, without doubt the best roofing for
farm-buildings.

It will be seen that the areas of the several roofs vary, accord-
ing to the slope, from 12^ to 14 squares, and that the substitution
of iron for timber principals entails an additional cost of about 1/.
per square in each case ; and this is a very moderate estimate of
the difference. For the prices given below, varying from 21. to
5/. per square, are calculated upon the full London rates of Avages
and full prices for timber, whilst the ironwork is priced at the
lowest estimate I have been able to obtain. Now, all the
carpenter's work will be subject to considerable reduction in
most country situations, where any ordinary village tradesman
can frame a wooden roof. Not so the ironwork. The ordinary
village smith is not equal to framing an iron roof, and as it would
generally be needful to bring experienced smiths from some large
town, it will be found that the more remote and thoroughly rural
the district, tlie greater will be the cost of such work ; and in
such situations a difference of even 2/. per square is not im-
probable. It is this last circumstance that occasions so marked
a contrast between farm-homesteads and other buildings, with
reference to iron construction.

That the price of timber may eventually materially increase,
that rolled iron may hereafter be produced at a cheaper rate than
at present, and that ordinary country tradesmen may gradually
become more accustomed to iron work, are by no means im-
probable speculations ; but I am unable to resist the conclusion,

Roofs for Farm- Buildings. 143

that tlie period lias not yet arrived when iron can economically
be substituted for timber in the construction of the roofs of farm-
buildings.

The employment of cast iron in roofing has not been mentioned,
as its weight and expense must ever preclude its use in ordinary
buildings, although the roofs of the Houses of Parliament are
constructed of wrought-iron principals, covered with sheets of
cast iron three-eighths or half-an-inch thick.

Some other forms of roof-covering have also been omitted in
the following descriptions, but enough have probably been
selected for the present purposes of comparison : —

Descriptions and Estimates of the Cost of Eleven Span-Eoofs, constructed
of various materiqls, hut each covering a Bidlding 50 feet long ly 20 feet
wide.

No. 1.— The cheapest roof that can be constructed is foitned with six pair
of principals of the following scantling : — Tie-beams, 8 x 3 in.
Principals, 4x3 in. King-post, 4x3 in. Stnitts, 3i x 2 in.
Iron straps and wedges. Wall-plates, 44 x 3. Ridge, 7 x I3 in.
Covered with Croggon's patent asphalte felt,* tarred and sanded,
on purlins about 1 ft. 9 in. apart, 41 x -h in.f

The cost of which, as i^er detail, is 26?. 10.?. 11(7.

Or about 21. per square.^

A roof of this kind would, of course, be only desirable in outbuildings,
where no flues are used. It forms a warm covering, and if properly attended
to, and coated from time to time with tar and sand, may last a good while,
whilst it admits of easy repair ; but unless it receives more than ordinary
care, it soon shows cracks and openings, through which the rain finds its
wa}', and speedily decays the timbers. This kind of roofing is extensively-
used on railways. The chief objection is, that the felt lies hollow. This is
obviated iu

Xo. 2, — A stronger roof than the foregoing, formed of principals of the same
scantling, but with fir rafters, 3 x I5 in., 1 ft. (j in. apart, on two
purlins, 4^- x 2^ in., and covered with 1-in. rough battens about
6 in. apart, and Croggon's felt tarred and sanded, as before de-
scribed.

The cost of this is 31Z. 17s. 4c7.f

Or about 2.1. 7s. per square.t
This makes a much stronger and more sighth' roof.

jSTo. 3. — A roof formed of wood principals of the same scantling as before,
covered with Morewood's patent continuous iron roofing, nailed on
wood purlins, 4^ x 2? in., 1 ft. 9 in. apart, with wall-plates,
4^ x 3 in., and ridge, 7 X I2 in.

The cost of which is 457, 9s. S^/.f

Or about 37. 7s. C,d. per square. J

* Croggon's asphalte felt costs 14s. per square.

t See tor details of cost, pp. 145, 146.

X The details show 13 square in the 3 first roofs.

144 Roofs for Farm-Buildings.

This makes a 2;ood incombustible roof, and with occasional painting, or some
preservative jjrocess, will last I'or a considerable time. The disadvantages are,
that lying hollow it soon buckles ; and in case of repair, it is difficult to make
a sound job without disturbing a great deal of the roofing.

No, 4. — This roof is formed in a similar manner to the foregoing, but laid
on rafters, 31x2 in. (instead of purlins), 1 ft. 9 in. apart, rounded
on the edge. 2 purlins, 4} x 3i in. lUdge, 7 x lu in.
The cost of which is 51Z. 8s. M.*

By the means of the rafters, the iron is dressed round them, and gives the
appearance of an Italian roof. This gives a stronger roof than the other ; the
sheets of iron being in less lengths are not so liable to buckle, and are easily
removed.

No. 5. — A roof similar to No. 3, but formed of eight wrought-iron principals, of

the following scantlings : — f in. diameter round iron tie and king

rods, i in. "T-strutts, 4 in. area. | in. X-principals, 5 in. area.

Purlins, 4^ x 2 in. Wall-plates, ridge and iron covering as before.

The cost of which is 59^. 158. 3cZ.*

No. 6. — Wrought iron principals as last, and covered as described in No. 4,
but with purlins, 4 x 3 in.
The cost of which is 63Z. 5s. Id.

It will be thus clearly seen that the cost is increased from 12Z. to 15?. by
the use of iron instead of wood principals.

No. 7. — A segmental roof formed of corrugated iron, No. 24 guage, Avith
eight f in. diameter tie and king rods.
The cost of which is 47/. ISs. 7c?.*

The detail shows 14 squares in this instance, a segmental roof having more
surlace.

The disadvantages of corrugated roofs are their liabihty to decay, their
extreme ugliness, and the difficulty in forming skylights, if so desired.

No. 8, for Pantiling. — A roof constructed of six wood principals of the following
scantlings : — Tie-beam, 10 x 4 in. Principals, 6 x 4 in. Braces,
4 X 22 in. 2X5 in. straps and f in. bolts at feet of principals.
Wrought iron Iving-rod, 1 in. in diameter, and cast-iron head.
Wall-plates, 41 x 3 in. Ilidge, 7 x I5 in. Eafters, 1 ft. apart,
4 X 2^ in., on purlins, 8x4 in., and covered with pantiling, laid
dry on stout laths.
The cost of which is 44?. 12s. lOtZ.*

Detail shows 12 j squares ; pantiling having no waste, not requiring very
much eaves or a very high slope.

This I consider a cheap roof; very substantial and capable of easy repair ;
forming a warm covering to cattle-sheds, and one which may
be recommended wherever the appearance of pantiles is not ob-
jected to.

No. 9, the same with iron introduced. — A roof formed of eight wrought-iron
principals of the ibllowing scantling : — 1 in. diameter tie and king

* See for details of cost, pp. \\(>, 147.

Roofs for Farm-Buildings. 145

rodf?. i in. T-sti'utts, 5 in. area. | in. 7"-principals, 62 in. area.

Purlins, 8 x Sin. Ixafters, wall-plates, tiling and lathing, as No. 8.

The cost of which is mi. 5s. lid.*

Showing an addition of nearl}' 11. per square iu cost of iron over wood in
framing roof.

No. 10, for Slating. — A roofformedofsix wood principals of the following scant-
ling: — Tie-beams, 8 x 4 in. Principals, 4 x 4 in. Braces, 3^ x 2
in. 2 X 5 in. wrought-iron straps and bolts at feet of 2:>rincipals.
Wrought-iron king-rod, 1 in. diameter, and cast-iron king-head.
Four purlins and ridge, 7 x 2^ in. Wall-plates, 4? x 3 in. 1 in.
rough close boarding, and best countess slating, 2^ in. lap, each,
slate fixed with two zinc nails. Slate ridges.

The cost of which is &QI. lis. M.*

This shows about ISi squares of slating, because there is an allowance for

cut slates and wide caves.

This is without doubt the best roof in every respect. It is easy of con-
struction, very durable, easily repaired, presents the best appearance externally
and internally, and, being boarded under the .slating, effectually protects the
interior from extreme alterations of temperature.

No. 11, the same with iron introduced. — The roof formed of eight iron ]irincipals
of the following scantlings : — Tie and king rods, 1 in. in diameter.
i T-strutts, 4 iu. area. | T-pnncipals, 65 in. area, with purlins,
6 X 2^ in., wall-plates and ridges, boarding, slating and ridge, as
described in No. 10.
The cost of which is 68?. 9s. Qd*

This, again, shows an increase of nearly 1/. per square, merely from the
substitution of iron for wooden principals.

Detailed Calculations of the forego hi rj Estimates.

No. 1.

Wood Principals covered xvith Croggo'ii's Felt on Purlins.

ft. in. £. s. d.

38 8 cube. Fir in tie-beams, principals, king-posts)

and braces f ■^'^' •' l** ^

No. 6 iron strains and wedges to kino-- 1 , ^

Dst .. .. .. .. .. f ^^ -^- 12

cwt. qr. lb.

pO:

1 i 17 Wrought iron in straps, principals and)

screw-bolts.. .."..'..-.. .. f ^'-^■^^'- " !»

Fixing iron- work .. 10

ft. in. 9 17

43 cube. Fir framed in purlins and ridge .. .. 2s. 10c7. G 1 10

9 5 „ Fir framed in wall-])late 2s. Qd. 1 f) 11

50 run. Labour to rounded edge of ridge . . . . Id. 4 2

1300 sup. Croggon's felt, nailed, tarred and sanded 14s. sq, 9 2

£26 10 11

* See for details of cost, pp. 147, 148.
VOL. I. — S. S.

14G Roofs for Farm-Buildings,

No. 2.

Similar Principals to No. 1, hut with Rafters covered ivith Battens and

Croggon's Felt, as he/ore.

ft. in. £. s. d.

Principals as No. 1 9 17

35 cube. Fir framed in rafters, purlins and ridge 2s. 9cZ. 4 16 3

600 sup. 1 in. rough battens and fixing .. .. 22s. sq. 6 12

Wall-plates, rounded edge, and felt as) -.^ ,<, -.

No. 1 J

£31 17 4

No, 3.

A JRoof formed of Wood Principals as No. 1, and covered with MoreiuoocFs
Patent Continuous Iron Poojing on Purlins.

£. s. d.

Principals as before 917

9 5 cube. Fir in wall-plate 2s. 9d. 1 .5 11

43 „ Fir framed in ridge and purlins .. .. 2s. lOd. 6 1 10

150 run. Labour to splayed edge of ridge and) -. , ^ -.9 (]

plates (

1300 sup. Morewood's patent No. 28 galvanized iron ) o^ 2'> 2

continuous roofing j ' '■'

1200 run. Punching holes in ditto id. 15

700 „ Zinc nailing id. 2 3 9

50 „ Iron ridge-cap and fixing 10c?. 2 18

£45 9 8
No. 4.

A Poof formed with Wood Principals as before, hut with rounded Pafters,
covered loith Morewood^s Iron Poofing, as before.

£. s. d.

ft. in. Principals as before 917

9 5 cube. Fir in wall-plates 2s. 9d. 1 5 11

57 6 „ Fir in purlins, ridge and rafters .. ..2s. 10f7. 8 3

6G7 run. Labour to rounded edge of rafters .. .. Id. 2 15 7

1392 sup. Morewood's continuous roofing .. ., 35s, 24 7 2

61)6 run. Punching and zinc nailing Id. 2 18

50 „ Iron ridge-cap and fixing lOcZ, 2 18

£51 8 4
No. 5.

A similar Poof to No. 3, but ivitli Iron Principals.

£. s. d.

15f cwt. Wrought iron in framed principals ., 27s, 21 5 3

No, 80 iron angle brackets for fixing) ^ 4

purlins to iron principals ,, ., j
Purlins, 42 x 2 in., and wall - plates. |

Piidge, iron roofing and ridge-cap as> .. 34 10

No.^3 )

£59 15 3

Roofs for Farm-Buildings, 147

No. G.

A similar Hoof to No. 4, hut loith Iron Principals.

£. s. d.
15f cwt. Wrought iron in principals, as described) 01 k o

for No. 5 f •• ^J- 5 rf

No. 16 iron angle brackets for purlins .. 16

Wall-plates, rafters, rounding, iron roof-]

ing and ridge as No. 4, but •with[ .. 41 3 10
purlins 4 x 3 in. )

£63 5 1

No. 7.
A Segmental Boof of Corrugated Iron, No. 24 giiage and Principals.

ft. in. £. s. d.

'9 5 cube. Fir in wall-plates 2s. Qd. 1 5 11

100 run. Labour to splayed edge If?. 8 4

No. 8 f iron bolts to secure wall-plate) o /^ 1 ^ /^

to wall ^ ..\ 2s. 16

1400 sup. No. 24 corrugated iron curved sheets and) „? ^r. ^ ^

fixing .. \ 3^-sq. 42

cwt. qrs. lbs.

2 2 3 Wrought iron in tie and suspension rods 27s. 3 8 4

£47 18 7
No, 8.
A Boof formed of Wood Principals, covered ivith Pantiles on Laths.

ft. in. " £. s. d.

64 9 cube. Fir framed in principals 3s. 9 14 3

cwt. qrs. lbs. r

2 2 4 Wrought iron in straps and bolts . . . . M. lb. 4 14 8

No. 6 cast-iron heads to king-bolts , . 7s. 2 2

Fixing bolts, straps, &c 20s. 10

ft. in.

9 5 cube. Fir in wall-plate 2s. 9c?. 1 5 11

97 3 „ Fir framed in rafters and purlins .. ..2s.lQd. 12 15 7

1250 sup. Lathing and pantiling, laid dry ,. ,, 20s. 12 10

50 run. Tile-heading as ridge 25c?. 10 5

£44 12 10

No. 9.
A Boof similar to No. 8, hut with Wroitght-iron Principals.

cwt qrs. lbs. £. s. d.

21 2 23 Wrought iron in framed principals .. 27s. 29 5 9
No. 16 iron brackets to fix purlins .. Is. 16

Wall-plates, rafters, purlins, lathing and)

pantiling, as No. 8, except reduction [ .. 26 4 2

of 1 in. in width of purlins . . . . j

£56 5 11
L 2

148 Roofs for Farm-Buildings,

No. 10.

A Pioof formed of Wood Principals, covered with 1 inch rough Boardinr/,
on Purlins and Slated.

ft. in. £• S. d.

9 5 cube. Fir iu wall-pktes 2s. M. 1 511

48 „ Fir framed in principals .. ., ,. .. 3s. 7 4

cwt. qrs. lbs.

2 2 4 "Wrought iron in king-rods and straps . . 4(7. lb. 4 14 8

No. 6 cast-iron heads and fixing . . . . 7s. 2 2

Fixing ironwork 100

30 5 cube. Fir framed in purlins and ridge . . . . 2s. lOd. 4 6 3

1250 Osup. 1 in. rough boarding 21s. sq. 13 2 6

200 run. Labour to splayed edge of wall-plate and) -. , n IP 8

ridge \ ^'

1340 sup. Best countess slating, 2^ in. lap, eachi ^^ on o o
slate lixed with two zinc nails . . j^ ^ s.

50 run Sawn-slate ridge and fixing 9d. 1 17

£56 11 6

No. 11.
A Poof similar to No. 10, hut luith Wrought-iron Principals.

cwt. qr, £. S. d.

19 1 Wrought iron in tie-rod, king-rod, prin-) r,- or i n n

cipals and strutts ( -''^- ""^ ^"^ *'

No. 32 iron angle-brackets for fixing) -, i i o ,^

r ° °> Is. 1 12

purhns J

Purlins, plates, boarding, .slating, ridge]

&c., as No. 9, except reduction of 1 in. >. .. 40 17 3

depth of piuiins J

£68 9
76, Old Broad Street, London, E.C.

XII. — Rural Economij of the Netherlands ; being a Report read
by M. de Lavergne to the Academy of Moral and Political
Science. Translated from the ' Journal d'Agriculture Pratique,'

by H. EVEESHED.

I HAVE already called the attention of the Academy to a work
on the 'Rural Economy of Belgium,' by M. Emile de Laveleye,
the professor of Political Economy at the University of Liege,
The same author has now given us, in a second publication,
an equally interesting picture of the kingdom of the Nether-
lands, and I shall now attempt to follow him in his more recent
travels.

The Netherlands, exclusive of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg,
contains 8,190,000 acres, and is nearly as large as Belgium.

Rural Economy of the Netherlands. 149

The population is 3,500,000, or a little more than 100 to 250
acres, while in Belgium it is 160, and in France onlj^ 68. Tlie
produce of the land suffices for its inhabitants, and even shows
a small surplus, for althoug^h food to the value of 2,400,000Z. is
imported every year, the value of the exports is 4,000,000/. Such
agricultural prosperity is the more remarkable because it is of
recent date. Holland formerly, like Venice, of all the states of
Europe owed the greatest portion of its wealth to commerce, and
the least to agriculture. The country was supported, not by the
plough tilling the bosom of the earth, but by her navy furrowing
the waves of every sea. Since the decline of her commercial
greatness (that is for more than a century) her attention has been
turned to agriculture, and little by little, unnoticed abroad, and
almost unobserved by the country itself, without noise, without
fuss, ' Holland, which once existed by trade only, has become
famous for agriculture.

' The territory is divided into two portions, equal in extent, but
differing much in fertility ; the low, clayey districts of the sea-
coast, and the higher sandy district of the interior.

The clay district, which is by far the most fertile, comprises
3,750,000 acres, after deduction has been made for land taken up
by roads, lakes, canals, towns, «S:c. It includes the provinces of
Zealand and North and South Holland, and extends over a
great portion of Friesland, Groningen, and Over-Yssel. The
perfectly level plain of the country proves that it was formed in
the depths of still water. In short, it owed its origin to three
rivers which had their mouths here, viz., the Scheldt, the Meuse,
and the Rhine. On entering the Low Countries the rivers have
hardly any fall, and when the fresh water meets the salt, the
current is entirely arrested, and the ooze settles in banks. These
low lands are protected by embankments and dykes, which were
begun in the earliest historical times. From the sixteenth cen-
tury a record has been kept of the works of this kind that have
been successively executed, and it appears that in 350 years,
875,000 acres of the richest land have been won from the
waters.

This region is on the whole one of the richest in Europe.
M. de Laveleye estimates the average value of the land at 48/.
per acre. The country, of which about two-thirds are in grass,
has the appearance of an immense pasture. This is the home of
those famous cows which yield 900 to 1100 quarts of milk a
year. Nowhere is farming more simple in its details, and at
the same time more profitable. The province most famous for
its grass-land is North Holland, a low projecting peninsula,
which stretches northwards from Amsterdam, with the ocean
on the west, and the Zuydcr Zee on the east. It would long ago

150 Rural Economy of the Netherlands.

have been divided into many islets if it had not been artificially
protected from the waves. Holland signifies in the native lan-
guage, holloio land, and hollow it is in fact, for when you look
over the country you see in all directions canals above the level
of the fields, and boats sailing above the heads of the cows.
Under such circumstances natural drainage is impossible ; to
get rid of the surface-water recourse is had to windmills, by
means of which it is pumped into the canals. Meadows occupy
seven-eighths of the land, and during the summer the cows
remain day and night in the pastures. Cheese is largely made,
and is called by the name of the little town of Edam, where a
large cheese-market is held. Hard, dry, and round, they will
keep for a year and more in the hottest climates, which makes
them particularly useful for the navy. England is a large con-
sumer. Bullocks are also fattened for the Amsterdam market,
and a good many milking cows are sold to Belgium and France.
The whole of the farmer's profit comes from cattle.

M. de Laveleye gives details respecting the wealth of the
Dutch farmers, which would seem incredible if they were not
established by all kinds of evidence. The unit by which a
fortune is reckoned in the Low Countries is a " tonne" of gold,
that is about 8540/. A farm-landowner who is worth one
" tonne " is not esteemed rich, it is common to meet with men
who are worth two or three.

M. de Laveleye gives the following account of a country wed-
ding which passed him in the street :- — " Forty carriages, filled
with the guests, went along at a smart pace. These vehicles are
of an antique and very pretty form ; ,they call them " chaises,"
they are, in fact, the gigs of the eighteenth century, with the
bodies in the form of a shell, hung high, and covered with
gilding and ornament (en chicoree). They are so narrow that
there is hardly room for two to sit. So the young girls Avith
fluttering lace and ribbons, and golden frontlets glittering in the
sun, were squeezed close by the side of their jovial companions,
who, with arms stretched out, drove their strong, black, nags at a
great rate. In the evening the guests came to the hotel where I
was, to take refreshments, I asked one of these yeomen if the
bride Avas rich, ' Oh ! yes,' was the answer, ' not badly off, a
tonne and a half I dare say, but,' presenting a smart lass with
black eyes, ' this is my intended, who is much more comfortably
provided for, she will have two.' "

These country folk are nearly all owners of the land they
hold, which is of such great value that seventy-five acres, well
stocked, represents a tonne. Most of them make investments in
the public funds. All have their houses furnished in luxurious
style, and make a great display of handsome silver plate ; since

Rural Economij of the Netherlands. 151

the opening of the English market raised the value of their
products, they are not content with having silver tea-services,
but the goblets and large dishes of all sorts must be of the same
metal, and some people finding even silver too common, have
come out with gold plate.

In South Holland the grass-lands are about equal in extent,
but not quite so good in quality. This province is the heart of
the Low Countries, and with reason gave its name to the whole
kingdom. Here are to be found, not far distant from each other,
the cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, and Leyden,
which are the pride of these regions. The two divisions of
Holland are together nearly as large as a French department,
and can boast of a population of 1,200,000 souls, or more than
200 to 250 acres, the same rate as in our Department du
Nord, and as in the most thickly populated parts of Belgium
and England. Such is the reward of indefatigable industry,
and of indomitable attachment to liberty.

Among the most recent agricultural achievements is the
drainage of the lake of Haarlem. This magnificent enterprise
was commenced in 1839. The cost reached 760,000/., or nearly
17Z. per acre ; for the lake of Haarlem covered 45,000 acres.
Making deduction for the land occupied by dykes and canals,
42,500 acres have been sold by auction at an average price of
16/., which almost covered the outlay. The land now sells
readily for 32/. to 40/. an acre. This ancient lake, which once
produced nothing, now yields a gross agricultural return of
160,000/.

The gardens of Holland have long been celebrated. Their
head-quarters are in a belt of country stretching along the sea-
coast, and called Westland. Although situated in the midst of
the clay district, this spot is sandy ; it was formerly covered with
embankments, but for more than four centuries the work oi
reducing them and removing- the sand elsewhere has been carried
on at a cost so enormous that the value of the land seems hardly
to repay it. The proximity of populous cities, affording a ready
market, has enabled Westland to acquire its extraordinary fer-
tility. It is a perfect garden, where cultivation has almost
worked miracles ; for, with a soil naturally poor, and with a
rigorous climate, it produces exotics which do not always thrive
even under the gentle skies of Nice. Near Haarlem are to be
seen large breadths of tulips, hyacinths, and jonquils, whose
bulbs are exported to all parts of the Avorld, The charming
village of Bloemendal, " the valley of flowers," sent forth bulbs
to the value of nearly 200,000/. in 1862. Roses are here grown
on a large scale for their blossoms, which are used for perfumery,
besides plants used in medicine, asparagus, figs, early beans,

152 Rural Economy of the Netherlands.

iinmens(i nurseries of fruit-trees, and of trees for ornamental
planting ; and lastly, magnificent grapes fit for a royal table.
The gardeners of Belgium and Paris, now so skilful, were the
pupils of the gardeners of Westland.

It is very clear how this remarkable culture originated. The
merchants of Holland drew their wealth from traffic ; all their
energy was directed to navigation ; they possessed little land,
and preferred to invest their spare capital in the public funds,
national or foreign. This explains how it was that landed
property fell almost entirely into the hands of the country people.
Moreover, the grass district required only a pastoral routine of
the simplest kind, Avhich did not involve the employment of
much capital. The merchants then were satisfied with having
a country house or a villa and garden, built on some sandy ele-
vation above the high-level of the waters, and not far from the
city ; and there the men of business came for retirement. The
rich capitalists spared no expense in adorning their retreat ; they
prided themselves in collecting the rarest flowers and the most
exquisite fruits. This taste in time became general ; and the
number of small country houses, kept up with the greatest care,
has become immense. The Dutch literature is rich in poetr}-,
written in celebration of the pleasures of a country life : these
bucolics are called the Arcadias ; and although the greater
portion of them may be rather antiquated in style, some among
the number are really natural and genuine in expression.

On the other side of the Zuyder Zee, that great gulf hollowed
out by the tempests of the twelfth centurj', extends the " green
region" of Friesland. In Holland, cheese is the staple produc-
tion ; in Friesland, butter : the cheese, made from the churned
milk, is considered only an accessory ; it is in butter-making
that the Friesland farmer displays that perfect cleanliness which
characterises him. The Friesland butter is so fine in quality
that in the London market, to which it is largely exported, it
sells at an excej)tional price. The quantity of butter taken to
the various provincial markets reached, in 1860, 140,000 cwts.,
which, at the average price of 5Z., would realise 700,000/. The
domestic animals of Friesland are celebrated. The cows are as
good as those of Flolland ; and the introduction of Durham bulls
will produce a cross breed which is expected to yield more cream
from a smaller quantity of milk, and to fatten more readily.
The black Priesland horses, with small lively heads and swan-like
necks, are capital trotters. In fact, the agricultural productions
of Friesland are little inferior to those of Holland, but the
farmers are generally less wealthy. There are not so many
proprietors among them ; and the length of lease being only
seven years on an average, the rise of rents is continual.

Rural EconoDuj of lice Netherlands. 153

For many years the fertility of these countries has been in-
creased by means of a process peculiar to the locality. On the
sea- side little hillocks, 13 feet to 19i feet high, may be observed
at short distances ; they are called Terpens. These hillocks
were formed by the hand of man ; and when opened, their
contents prove that they belong to an ante-historical epoch. They
were without doubt places of refuge, where the ancient inha-
bitants took shelter with their herds during the high tides.
Formed of clay and manure, they contain much fertilizing
matter. The practice is to spread them on the meadows, and
thereby not only is the quantity of herbage increased, but the
(juality is improved.

To the north of Friesland is the province of Over-Yssel, less
fertile and less prosperous. It begins with a wide region of
peat intersected in all directions by large lakes and numerous
ponds and ditches. The earth, drowned in water all round,
looks like a sea of mud. Towiirds autumn numberless herds
enliven these green solitudes ; but up to the middle of July the
only living things that are to be seen are the various water-fowl
and sea-gulls. These amphibious tracts exhibit many ingenious
methods of cultivation. All sorts of marsh-plants grow here
with great luxuriance, and they are collected to make manure.
The reeds furnish cheap and excellent covering for roofs ; rushes
are used to make mats, which serve as carpets for the humble
dwellings, and are also exported to England. By such means
a tolerable revenue is obtained from the swamps.

This is also the land of floating islands, which originate in
the accumulation of vegetable debris on the surface of the lakes,
and in time become firm enough to carry cows. There are
certain spots of drier and firmer land ; and the delta formed at
the mouths of the \ ssel rivals in richness the best portions of
Flolland and Friesland.

The province of Zealand is situated at the point where Belgium
ends : formed by the mouths of the Scheldt, it is made up of
many islands separated by the arms of that river. There is much
less grass-land than in Holland, one-half of the province being
arable. The principal crops are madder, flax, rape-seed, wheat,
and beans. In this damp climate, and under exposure to the
ocean blast, it is singular to meet with a plant so delicate as
madder, which delights in the warm fields of Avignon. But it
succeeds here very well, and appears to have been introduced in
the fifth century. Official statements estimate the produce of
2^ acres planted with madder at 30 cwts., worth 60/. at the
ordinary price (24/. an acre). But M. de Laveleye states that the
real return is generally superior to that. The best farmed portion
of the province is the island of Walcheren. The farms there

154 Rural Economy of the Netkerlands.

are small (50 to 60 acres), and admirably kept. The land is
never allowed to rest. The picturesque costume of the peasants,
so often a subject for tlie artist, gives completeness to the unique
character of the country.

In the Zealand coat-of-arms a lion is represented lifting
himself by a bold attempt above the waves that were ready to
engulf him. The motto is Luctor et emergo, " I strive and I rise
above water." The device is true in a double sense, both as
applied to the battle which these islands may be said to wage
against the ocean, and to the heroic struggle by which they estab-
lished their independence. Zealand cut through its dykes and
gloriously let in the flood rather than submit to the yoke of
Philip II. ; and it had afterwards to reconstruct, Avith great
labour, Avhat its patriotism had destroyed in one day.

At the other extremity of the Low Countries is the province
of Groningen, the most northern of all. It is a republic estab-
lished and governed by a rural population, which is both wealthy
and enlightened. That aristocracy, which is the pride of rural
life in Britain, does not here exist. The only houses are those of
the farmers, and they are all alike. The buildings are un-
equalled. Between the road and the dwelling-house is the
garden planted with ornamental and exotic trees, with a lawn
laid out in flower-beds. At the background is the kitchen-garden
filled with fruit-trees and a variety of vegetables. The extent of
the facade, the numerous windows, the embroidered curtains,
the furniture in American oak, the piano, the capital library, all
proclaim easy circumstances and the habits which result there-
from. Behind the dwelling-house is a great building, lofty and
long like a church, containing stables, cattle-houses, barns, &c. ;
all under one roof. On entering you find barn-room sufficient
to store the crops of 250 acres, a collection of the most improved
tillage implements, sixty cows perhaps in one row, and twenty
splendid black horses, the pride of their owner. The cultivation
of arable land prevails as in Zealand, and it is as well under-
stood as in England. On the clays, a crop of 44 to 55 bushels
per acre of beans, 55 to QQ bushels of barley, and 77 to 88
bushels of oats is not uncommon. To give an idea of the number
of cattle reared, we may cite the parish of Aduard, with not
more than 2000 inhabitants, which exported in 1860, 389
milking cows, 420 fat oxen, 78 heifers, 86 horses, 1254 sheep,
add 700 cwts. of butter, and it does as much every year.

How are we to account for these large returns, and this great
agricultural wealth ? M. de Laveleye finds an explanation in
the custom of tenancy, which obtains in the country, and which
is called the beklem-recit, or hereditary tenancy. It is the right
of permanent occupation, on payment of a fixed annual sum,

Rural Economy of the Netherlands. 155

which the landlord cannot increase. This passes to the heir
both in a direct or collateral line ; the tenant can devise it, sell
it, lease it, or mortgage it without consent of the lessor; but
whenever the lease changes hands by heritage, or sale, the pro-
prietor claims one or two years' rent. One of the essential charac-
teristics of this hereditary tenancy is that the holding cannot be
divided, but must be held by one individual ; consequently one
of the heirs must take it as his portion. When a tenant fails,
the beklem-regt does not go to the liquidation of his debts to
the full amount of its value ; the creditors have power to sell it,
but the buyer is bound to pay any arrears due to the landlord.
This kind of contract which dates from the middle ages is not
without analogy in other parts of Europe. M. de Laveleye cites
the life contract (contratto di Livello) of Lombardy ; in France
even we have long had something equivalent in the " tenancy
subject to notice " (domaine cotif/eable) in use in Brittany. One
can also find remote traces of a similar custom in what is called,
in some cantons of Picardy, the " ill-will " (/c viauvais gre).

Only in Brittany the landlord has the right to give notice to
quit when he pleases, paying the tenant a valuation on any
buildings he has erected ; whilst in Groningen this right does
not exist, or exists no longer, for it seems the landowners did
reserve it originally, but in the midst of the revolutions of
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it fell into disuse.

The opposite appears to have happened in Brittany, where
formerly the occupiers did not admit the right of dismissal. On
the one hand the interest of the farmer has prevailed, on the
other the right of the landowner. It is a natural consequence of
this discrepancy that in Brittany the domaine congeahle is going
out of use, whilst in Groningen according' to M. de Laveleye
the heklem-regt becomes more general. The Dutch economists,
he says, have unanimously pronounced in its favour, and in a
recent agricultural congress, after an exhaustive discussion, they
came to the conclusion that it Avas desirable to adopt the custom
in other provinces. These facts deserve the more attention,
because they are entirely opposed to the ideas which prevail
elsewhere in Europe.

With complete ownership land sells for 80/. an acre in
Groningen. But it often happens that when the hereditary
tenancy is of old date, the annual rent payable to the landowner
does not exceed os. 2d. to 2>s. lOd. an acre. In that case the
farmer may be considered the real proprietor, since he pays only
a trifling rent, about equal to the tax he pays to the state. These
rich countrymen seldom care to become purchasers and to
combine the ownership with the cultivation of the land. They

15G Rural LVviiuiin/ of tlic Netherlands.

preier to remain farmers, and in fact by so doing' tliej can obtain
a g-reater profit on their capital.

M. do Laveleye points out a new practice which threatens to
interfere with the action of this tenure. The value of agricul-
tural productions has been very much increased since England
became a customer, and the profits of the farmers have grown so
large, especially in the case of those who pay a low rent, that
they have adopted the practice of sub-letting their land under
the conditions of an ordinary lease. The land thus carries a
double rent, and the advantages which hitherto attended the
hereditary tenancy cease to exist, because the farmer is no longer
the actual lessor but an under-tenant. So the heklem-rerjt seems
likely to become a dead letter in consequence of the success
which has attended it.*

Nowhere, perhaps, is intelligence so generally diffused as in
these countries. Most of the farmers are accustomed to engage
m theological debates. Many of them belong to the Mennonitcs,
who are the Quakers of Holland. " One day," says M. de
Laveleye, " I remarked four fine farms one after the other. I
asked the landlord of an inn at which I was stopping, to whom
they belonged." " To Quakers," was his answer, " they are
wealthy, each is worth not less than 26,000/." (three tonnes).
" I have heard the remark that there are no poor among the
members of that fraternity, is that the case here?" "Yes,"
says mine host, " they have only a single poor person among
them, and when he dies there won't be one ! " Severe manners,
work and mutual assistance, have banished want from these little
communities, where every one is known, all are cared for, and
each one helps the other.

The other half of the Low Countries, with a similar area of
9,750,000 acres, offers a striking contrast to the former. It is a
belt, naturally sterile, extending on the one side to the Belgian
"Campine" or plain, and on the other to the sands of Prussia,
being on an average about 50 feet above the level of the sea. It

* An educated Englishman can hardly fail to recognise the strong resemblance
between the Bekleni-regt and our own free or copyhold tenures, under the lord of
a manor, at an earlier stage of their existence. With us the sums fixed for
reserved or quit rents are so small, because they are of such ancient date, and the
fine iipon transfer is so considerable, -whenever it is set upon the irresent annual
value, that to our view the rent is quite eclipsed by the fine, and left out of
account — yet it represents an old English Beklem-rcgt.

This resemblance may remind us of the days when England -was distinguished
fiom other European nations mainly by her yeomanry, but it must also teach us
that no mere law of tenure can permanently resist the changes which time and
circumstance promote. For ourselves, it has become a matter of congratulation
that, in spite of the lawyers, we are getting rid of the trammels of copyhold
tenure, now thoroughly antiquated. — P. H. F.

Rural Economy of the Netherlands. 157

comprises the provinces of Drenthe, Brabant, Limbourg, and
part of those of Over-Yssel and Gelderland, and of Utrecht.
One-half of this vast expanse is still uncultivated. In 1860
the province of Drenthe numbered only 94,000 inhabitants on
665,000 acres, namely, 36 to 250 acres, equivalent to the popu-
lation of our department at Landes, and less than that of any
other province of the Low Countries. Its population has almost
trebled since the end of the last century, when it was only
37,000.

Encompassed on all sides with swamps and peat-bogs, this
region is like an island of sands and heaths, shut out from all
communication with the rest of the country. The old constitu-
tion of the Saxon Marches exist here up to the present time. The
word March applies, especially, to the waste lands that surround
the cultivated fields of a tribe, and form an uninhabited border
that serves as the frontier. In France we meet Avith the same
word, to designate one of our ancient provinces, which was
formerly almost a desert, and where there are immense breadths
of uncultivated commons even at the present time. In Drenthe
it has been decided by the Courts of Justice that the ancient
Marches can be sold, or divided among the co-proprietors. The
result of this decision is that the Marches disappear rapidly ; and
in proportion as individual ownership gains ground the popu-
lation increases.

Even where the enclosures took place long since, some relics of
the old rural commonalty have been preserved. Formerly each in-
habitant had his plot for cultivation in the common fields allotted
to him every year. These allotments have now become pretty
nearly private property, but the ownership is far from being com-
plete, for all the old customs of common-field cultivation continue
to subsist. The cultivated land is divided into a number of small
plots, on which no stock can be turned while the general crop
is on the ground ; so that they must be all sown with the same
kind of grain, tilled, and seeded, and harvested at the same time.
The three-crop rotation is followed : — first, winter rye ; second,
spring rye ; third, fallow, now replaced by buckwheat. The
collective body of farmers is called The Boor (in other words the
countryman). They meet in full assembly under the venerable
oak-trees, to settle the periods for cultivation, seed-time and
harvest. After the gathering of the crop, the entire land is free
as common pasture. Similar customs still remain in the east
part of France, especially in Lorraine.

The wretched system of cropping would have impoverished
the soil long ago, if they did not keep up its condition b}^ a plan
just as barbarous as the cropping — that of paring the turf and
heather from off the waste lands, and laying it on as compost.

158 Rural Economy of the Netherlands.

The peat-bogs that fill the hollows of this region give rise
to a special kind of farm management. No man lives there,
indeed he can hardly move about them without danger. The
neighbouring farmers therefore lease, or as they express it, pur-
chase the land for twelve years. In the spring they dry the
surface of the bog by making drains in it, then they cut the
turfs, which are left through the summer to dry. In the spring
of the following year they .set fire to the dried turfs, level them
with a harrow, and sow buckwheat. The land so treated pro-
duces five or six crops in succession, ; after the third, the
yield begins to fall off; from the fourth, spurrey, a plant not
native to the peat-bogs, makes its appearance, and gradually
overruns the land, so that in the sixth year spurrey and buck-
wheat together are cut as forage for cattle. When the land is
completely exhausted it is again abandoned to the natural
herbage. Twenty-five or thirty years must elapse before the bog
is restored, so as to offer a seed-bed for cultivated plants. The
area burnt every year is so great that the thick columns of
smoke, driven by the north wind, spread over the half of Europe ;
a special odour, says M. de Laveleye, accompanies the appear-
ance of this singular phenomenen, which the people call dry,
or northern mists, without questioning their origin.

We have got very far away from the pastures of Holland and the
gardens of Westland. These wild regions, whose aspect carries
us into ancient Germany, as described by Tacitus, abound in
those singular monuments which the Celtic race have every-
where left behind them. We refer to the enormous blocks of
granite, placed one upon the other, like gigantic tables. They
are called in the locality the beds, or tombs, of the Huns, and
according to popular tradition, they were set up by the hordes of
Attila ; but it is quite evident that their origin is the same as
that of Carnac stones in Brittany, or of Stonehenge in England.

Happily the sandy tract is not everywhere equally barren.
M. de Laveleye \ states, that in the other provinces the best
systems of cultivation have been introduced. More import-
ance is given to green crops, rye is less frequently repeated,
clover is grown, and some approach is made to the alternate
system of cropping. Both the practice and the products of hus-
bandry are then nearly the same as in Belgium. One portion
of the province of Liinbourg, which is naturally more produc-
tive, is exceedingly thriving. In the peaty tract of Groningen,
peat-farming has given rise to real colonies, that furnish one of
the brightest pages in the agricultural history of the country.
The work of settlement proceeds at the present time. The city
of Groningen, possessing a large extent of unreclaimed peat,
has made a canal, and opened the way to new settlers. The

Rural Economy of the Netherlands. 159

system of hereditary lease is applied to their clearings, and the
city may well be satisfied with it, for the farmers bring to the
work that energetic action to which the feeling of ownership
gives rise.

At another spot has arisen the little colony of the Society of
Benevolence, established about forty years ago by General Van
den Bosch. Owing to the devotedness of the managers, and
the generosity of the subscribers, 434 little homesteads have
been built, 3500 acres of land have been brought into cultiva-
tion, and a laborious population of 3000 souls has been removed
beyond the reach of poverty. It is true that the outlay has
been disproportionate to the results, and this gives rise to doubts
as to the future.

Planting the poor land is a work which is not open to the
same uncertainty. The Netherlands are deficient in woods,
having in all only 562,500 acres, almost all situated in the pro-
vinces of Gelderland and Brabant. A change is taking place in
this respect, and extensive planting has been undertaken. The
timber trees Avhich succeed best are the Scotch fir and the black
Austrian pine. This new source of wealth promises to be some
day highly productive. M. de Laveleye remarks, with justice,
that if the Low Countries during the last century had devoted to
the planting of their heaths all the money they have invested in
foreign loans, their returns would have been more steady, and less
exposed to risk from the possible bankruptcy of involved govern-
ments.

To sum up, the 7,500,000 acres capable of cultivation in the
territory of the Netherlands is disposed as follows : —

Acres.

Natural Pasturage 3,375,000

Arable land 1,812,500

Wood 562,500

Uncultivated land 1,750,000

7,500,000

These figures show that the Netherlands (together with Swit-
zerland) have the largest proportion of pasturage of any country.
If we add the root-crops and artificial grasses, it appears that
twice as much land is appropriated to feed domestic animals as
is devoted to cereals and other vegetable products that serve as
food for man.

Among cereal crops rye stands first, occupying nearly 500,000
acres. Wheat is only grown in the most fertile portion, and the
entire crop does not exceed 620,000 qrs., or one bushel and eleven
gallons per head of the population. Bread made from wheaten
flour is here an article of luxury ; that in general consumption.

160 Rural Economy of tJte Netherlands.

in town as well as in country, is made of rye-flour. The crop of
rye exceeds 1,200,000 qrs., or two bushels six gallons per head.
After adding to these figures 515,625 qrs. of buckwheat, it still
appears that the crop of grain is insufficient to meet the con-
sumption, notwithstanding a large growth of potatoes. Conse-
quently the Low Countries import grain every year to the amount
of three- fourths of a million to a million quarters, of which the
greater part is rye. The agricultural exports consist chiefly of
cheese, butter, and other animal products.

A century ago the Netherlands grew no wheat, and much less
rye than it produces now, but it had nevertheless become the
granary of Europe, although all the grain that flooded its ports
came from abroad. The merchants of Amsterdam had found it
easier and shorter to draw their supplies from the Baltic than
from the soil of their own country ; they sold corn to France and
to England, and even carried it as far as the Mediterranean.
When this commerce came to an end the cultivation of cereals
was developed ; it is constantly extending, and M. de Laveleye
affirms that the time will come when the country will be sup-
ported by its own produce. If so, it will be one of the most
striking revolutions in the rural economy of Europe.

The farming on the seaboard is already unsurpassed even by
that of England, Belgium, Lombardy, or French Flanders. It is
the inland belt, with its immense tracts of uncultivated land, that
pulls down the average ; but an impetus has been given to im-
provement, and it cannot fail to be sustained.

Since 1790 the population of the Low Countries has increased
50 per cent., whilst that of France has only increased 30 per
cent, in the same period. The improvement has been parti-
cularly marked in the district described as " sandy." The pos-
sibility of such progress could have been little anticipated at the
period when the Dutch lost the monopoly of naval transport ; but
agriculture has retrieved everything. Consequently there is no
country where rural economy is held in greater honour. There
are numerous agricultural associations ; the agricultural society
of the two provinces of Holland alone numbered 7000 members
in 1860. They talk of uniting the members of all these societies
in one powerful association, and hope to bring up the number to
40,000, fixing the annual subscription at 2s. At present, in-
stead of such a combination, there are agricultural meetings
Avhich assemble every year, sometimes in one province, some-
times in another, to which proprietors and farmers flock Irom all
parts of the kingdom. Many of these agricultural societies
publish a report of their labours. All questions touching upon
rural economy are handled in a number of journals, books, and
pamphlets, and all foreign works of importance are translated.

Aiithyllis Vulneraria (^Lcuhjs Fingers). 161

The province of Groningen supports, at its own expense, an ngri-
cultural school, which is well attended. Among the circum-
stances favourable to agriculture, the number and excellence of
the means of communication must be taken into account. Heavy
traffic is all managed by water. Unrivalled facilities for navig-a-
tion are afforded by the extent of sea-coast ; by the Zuyder Zee,
which penetrates far into the country, like an inland sea ; by the
multitudes of islands and river-mouths ; by the rivers and canals
that interlace and cross each other. On the seaboard there is
not a farm without its dyke communicating with the nearest
canal, Avith its boat for the conveyance of hay, manure, and the
crops. It is by boat that the milk is brought home morning and
evening from the pastures. The roads that complete this net-
Avork are paved with bricks so hard that they ring like metal ;
perfectly kept, neat, even, without dirt or dust, you roll along as
smoothly as upon the floor of a room.

Up to the present time there have been no railways over a
great part of the country, and indeed they were less required here
than elsewhere. They are now making progress every day.

XIII. — On Anthyllis Vulneraria {Ladijs Fingers) as a Fodder
Plant. By James Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c., Professor
of Geology and Rural Economy.

The Anthyllis Vulneraria (Lady's Fingers, or kidney vetch), is
a plant commonly met with in this country, as well as over a
great part of Europe and Asia. It is found, according to Ben-
tham, ' In dry pastures and rocky stony places, chiefly in hilly
districts throughout Europe and Western Asia, from the Medi-
terranean to the Arctic Circle. Ranges generally over Britain,
although here and there considerable districts may be without
it.'*

The fact that this plant is tabulated in nineteen out of twenty
local Floras, shows how general is its growth throughout our own
island. It is, however, a lover of limestones, or calcareous soils,
such as the oolites of the Cotswolds, the chalk ranges both in
the South and West, and (according to Leighton) in Shropshire,
' on all limestone soils, especially Wenlock Edge (Wenlock lime-
stone), Gleeton Hill, near Wenlock (Wenlock limestone), &c."t

The Anthyllis may be distinguished by a compact head of
yellow flowers, which is composed of two many-flowered bunches,

* ' Handbook of British Flora.' p. 172.
t Leighton's ' Flora of Shropshire,' p. 351.
VOL. II. — S. S. M

162 AntlnjUis Vulneraria {Ladys Fingers),

and, as the corolla, or more conspicuous part of each flower dies
away, the hairy whitish calyx expands and becomes more con-
spicuous. This downy calyx (which is especially seen when
the plant is grown in poor soils), and the downy aspect of the
whole herbage would at first sight indicate that the Anthyllis is
too dry and sapless to be relished as cattle-food.

In 1862, when my attention was called to this plant as being
reported to yield a large crop of hay and green food, possessing
" extra good qualities," upon exceedingly poor soils, namely,
sandy chalk, and " without any manure," this peculiarity in its
appearance made me hesitate, and express in print * " some
doubt about the good qualities in a feeding point of view of
plants that can be grown on next to nothing," as such produce is
usually found to be Avhat the farmers term " without proof," a
most expressive phrase, meaning " of a low feeding value." The
soil accompanying the specimen sent to us was light and sandy
in the extreme. Still " it must be conceded that the Anthyllis
Vulneraria belongs to the same great natural order as the clovers
and saintfoin, though, unlike them, its tap-root has by no means
the same long penetrating character. It is, then, just possible
that manure may much improve its qualities, and probably its
yield, but it will be by producing a new variety (as the result of
cultivative processes) that will be able to bear better with riches
than with poverty."

The hay, of which a specimen was then sent, seemed from the
extraordinary hairiness of its enlarged calyx, to offer but a poor
choking diet for any kind of animal ; this characteristic, as in
hairy grasses, being a sign of want of flavour and quality no less
than a mechanical impediment to such fodder being made
the most of. I concluded, however, by remarking that plants
quite hairy in the wild state lose that condition on cultivation ;
as examples we may give parsnips, and even the broad-leaved
clovers. In these and in other plants which might be adduced
the advance of smoothness and succulency is concurrent with
improvement in produce as well as in feeding value. Again,
in speaking of this hairiness of the foliage, and indeed the whole
plant, I further directed attention to the fact that the specific
name, vulneraria, is derived from its reputed efficacy in staunch-
ing blood and healing wounds ; and as it has no astringent
qualities, suggested that its property of stopping bleeding may
have been due to its soft hairy qualities ; so that any virtue it
may possess in this way may only be found in the wild plant.

Having, then, stated these opinions in 1862, on establishing
an experimental garden at Bradford Abbas, in 1864, it was

* See 'Agricultural Gazette' for December 13, 1862, No. 60.

Anthyllis Vulneraria (Ladi/'s Fingers),

163

determined to make trial of the Anthyllis under cultivation, and
I now proceed to glance at the results.

Having obtained two packets of seed from the Messrs. Sutton,
named as follows, Anthi/ His Vulneraria and Anthyllis jaune, these
were drilled in rows nine inches apart, in May, 1864. Now, as
every one will remember, this was an exceedingly dry summer,
so that the plants barely established themselves before winter :
however, on the 1st of May, 1865, the following results were
noted, which I give in connection with those obtained from
clover and its allies, of which more than fifty varieties were in
cultivation in my experimental garden. These results were
tabulated on the 1st of May, as evidence of the value of each
plant for green food at a season when, as all farmers well know,
succulent food for soiling is specially valuable from its scarcity.

Results of some Experiments icith Clovers and Kindred Plants.

Botanical Name.

Common Name.

Height

in
Inches.

Estimated

weight
per Acre.

Anthyllis Vulneraria . .

„ jaune

Trifolium pratense

„ „ var. perenne

„ pratense
Onobrychis sativa

„ var, bifera

Vicin cracca

„ sativa

Melilotus leucantha . .

„ „ var. major

„ „ officinalis
Lathyrus pratensis

Lady's Fingers

A French variety
Broad Red Clover
Cow Grass Clover
Broad Red, fine variety . .

Saintfoin

Giant Saintfoin

Cow Vetch

Common Field Vetch

White Melilot

Bokhara Clover

Common Yellow Melilot . .
Yellow Vetchling

6

8

4

4

6i
16
18
16
12

8
13

6

7

Tons. Cwt.

7

8 12
2

2

3

5

6 8

3 1

4
2 4
4 12
2 5
1 2

The conclusions to be drawn from this table in reference to
the other varieties of this order under trial may be reserved for
future consideration.

The Anthyllis jaune, or Trefle jaune des Sables of the French,
and the Gemeiner Wimoklee of the Germans has been under
cultivation both in France and Germany for some time ; I have,
therefore, no doubt that our seed of Anthyllis jaune was from the
plant in cultivation in France, and that of the Antliyllis Vulne-
raria of our list was from the seed introduced to the notice
of English agriculturists. But be this as it may, the difference
is apparent, not only in the weight of the produce, but in
other particulars now to be mentioned. In the wild plant
the terminal leaflet of the pinnate leaves is about an inch
long and three-eighths of an inch broad, and is covered with

M 2

164: Anthyllis Vulneraria {Ladys Fingers],

long silhy hairs; in cultivation this often attains a length
of two inches, and a breadth of five-eighths of an inch, and
is only slightly hairy; such is the improved English plant.
In the French plant this leaflet attains the length of three
inches, and the breadth of one inch, and is quite smooth. I
am disposed to think that the size of these leaflets may be roughly
taken as a measure of the succulency and feeding value of each
variety, and I have already stated that my experiments in 1865
on the cultivated and smoother varieties of the Anthyllis had
modified the opinion which I had formerly expressed with
reference to the wild plant with its hairy foliage.

My experiments with the clover and the kindred species also
brought out the fact, that while most of the true clovers were
attacked by the Broomrape {Orobanche), the Anthyllis in all
my plots entirely escaped. I find, moreover, in the French
' Journal d' Agriculture Pratique ' for April, 1864, mention of the
Trcfle violet (Lucerne) being injured by dodder, while the
Anthyllis jaune escaped.

I have not as yet given this plant any extended trial in field-
cultivation, but I purpose to do so this year, and think that it is
of sufficient importance to warrant my asking other farmers to
join in the inquiry. 1 still hold, however, that the plant in its
wild unaltered form, as grown on poor soils " where nothing
else will grow," will only give results that are more or less
disappointing ; but if by good cultivation and more generous
treatment we can succeed, as there seems reason to anticipate, in
making of this stunted hairy kinsman of the clovers a fine
smooth succulent forage-plant, it may encourage us to deal in
like manner with other members of this family, which I am
convinced includes many species that may be made useful to
the farmers besides those at present in cultivation. The French
Agricultural Journals strongly recommend the cultivation of the
crop in question, and generally upon the grounds that it comes
in as a green crop a little later than the Trifolium incarnatum,
or even than the Trijie incarnat extra-tardif. It is grown in
France much in the same way as the T, incarnatum, namely,
well harrowed after harvest into the oat or wheat stubbles to be
ready for feeding the following summer. It, however, differs
from the T. incarnatum in that this is annual, while the
Anthyllis is a perennial plant, and if grown in good mixed
marly or calcareous soils it holds on to the ground with great
pertinacity, though repeatedly cut down. In fitness for a hay
crop it is superior to the T. incarnatum, as it is not so sticky
and more juicy, if taken at a right time just as the flowers
have opened, but this superiority of course depends upon
whether we have the cultivated sort which will best be secured

AnthijlUs VLihieraria {Ladi/'s Finrjcrs). 165

by procuring- French or German seed. 1 am not aware that
any analysis has as yet been made of the plant ; this, however,
should be done from specimens taken both in its green or grazing
state, and in the shape of hay.

Letter from Me. Geoege Tuenee, of Barnkam, near
Tltctford, to the Editor.

" SlE, — In answer to your request, I give you the results of my
experience in the growth of the Anthyllis (or kidney vetch),
although I fear they are hardly worth recording.

"Knowing- the district in which IVIr. H. Stebbing gathered his
original stock of seed, and afterwards seeing- it growing on his
farm at Stow Beedon, I felt convinced it was a valuable plant,
especially for light sandy lands, with a chalk subsoil, the nearer
the chalk the better. I began by sowing- one acre and an half
in the spring of 1860, which piece I fed in the following spring,
from the first week in April until the 21st of May, then shut it
up to mow ; finding it well headed I saved it for seed, cut it on
the 19th of August, and had two good waggon-loads, which pro-
duced 5 bushels (of 70 lbs. each) of seed ; the following year 1 fed
it all summer; in 1863 I again fed this same piece, together
with another piece sown in 1862, until the 21st of May, and
I then took another crop of seed ; I began to cut on the 5th,
and carted on the 12th day of August, the two pieces had two
waggon-loads per acre, and averaged 5 bushels of fine seed
per acre, — this is the best crop I have grown. After a seed-crop
my land has produced but little after-feed. The two following
years I had not so good a plant, neither have the seasons been so
favourable.

" As to ' drawing ' the seed, I have always found this a very
slow and troublesome job ; but I get all my seeds drawn by
contract, with steam-engine and barrel-machine, at 5^. per
bushel. Last year it took me five days to cob and draw the
45 bushels of Anthyllis which 1 grew ; but the rain which fell
upon it in 1865, whilst it slightly affected the colour of the seed,
assisted the drawing very much.

"To show how I appreciate this plant, I began Avith
\\ acre the first year, had 5 acres the second, 20 acres the third,
40 acres the fourth, 60 acres the fifth, and 35 acres the sixth
(last year), all of Avhich (with the exception of 5 acres) is still
laying, and constantly fed Ijy sheep.

" 1 have always drilled 16 or 17 lbs. per acre with a seed-drill,
and the earliest sown in the spring is the best and strongest plant.
1 think it will bear to be led very close without injury to the

166 Anthyllis Vulneraria (Lady^s Fingers).

plant ; I never have cut any for hay, my object having been to
cultivate it more for the feed, which the sheep eat with great
avidity, and are soon satisfied. I think it a good astringent
when there is a tendency to scour. I ought to tell you that
mine is a large light-land sheep-farm, the greater part very poor
sand ; and it is on the poorest parts that I have been growing the
kidney vetch.

" I am, Sir, yours very truly,

" George Turner."
Jan. 26, 1866.

P. H. Frere's Experience of Anthyllis.

In the spring of 1863, on the recommendation of Mr. Stebbing
(of Stowe Beedon, Attleborough, Norfolk), I was induced to sow
about 4 acres as a layer, instead of rye-grass and trefoil, on some
poor heath-land — black sand with a chalk subsoil. In that dry
season the seeds on the rest of the field adjoining failed almost
entirely ; the Anthyllis looked very thin in April, 1864, and
was condemned, but was so much improved in May, that a part,
and then the whole plot, received a respite, and did very good
service in the scorching July that followed. After all the other
layers had been depastured by the sheep, and no fresh feed
had sprung up, the Anthyllis was still in reserve.

I find the following note in my farm- book : "1864, July 26.
The lambs finished the Anthyllis ; having had 12 days feed for
220 ; 307 ewes were kept 4 days on the land after the lambs left.
Some little after-feed grew, and Avas eaten off by sheep which
also ranged over an adjoining heath, and left a light folding.

I observed that where some stray seeds had been blown by the
wind at sowing-time on to the adjoining land (sown with rye-
grass and trefoil), the plants which grew therefrom were picked off
first by the sheep when that land was folded. In 1865 the layer,
now in its second year, was partly sheep-fed, partly cut for seed.
The farm-book notes, 1865, July 10, 90 shearling ewes finished
1 a. 2 r. 18 p. ; 14 days' keep. Calculating the week's keep at
6<Z. per head, the value of the feed comes to 37. 4*. per acre, and
it was reckoned to be as abundant and quite as hearty as the best
red clover on my farm growing on land of double the value ; the
ewes, which were for sale, and therefoi'e fresh in condition,
received a little cotton-cake in addition to the Anthyllis.

The remainder of the plot, 2 a. 3 r. 27 p., was cut for seed on
the 21st of July, and carted on the 28th ; there were 6 waggon-
loads ; estimated at 5 tons of stover, or 1 ton 14 cwts. per acre.
This has lately been thrashed lightly by hand, to knock off the

Anthyllis Vulneraria (^Lachjs Fiiifjcrs). 167

husk and seed, and the stover has been cut into chaff for stock,
and proved most serviceable in a season when our straw is ex-
tremely short in quantity and bad in quality. We value the
stover at 3/. per ton, or 5/. per acre for 1 ton 14 cwt.

To part the seed of this plant from the husk must always be a
troublesome job : not having a proper " cannon " for drawing the
seed, I have employed my own American grist-mill and steam-
engine for the purpose, which did the work well, but slowly,
for it is not easy to feed the mill fast enough. I have only got
7 bushels of seed in all, and it has taken 7 days to pass the husk
through the mill and finish off the sample for market. On two
of these days I used a hired " cannon," but did not get on much
the faster. Had it been clover-seed, the whole job would have
been completed in one day.

Mr. Stebbing likewise informs me that he has much trouble
in preparing Anthyllis seed for market. In 1864 he grew
64 bushels of clean seed on 18 acres of land, and estimates the
cost of drawing, tScc, at 36/. 13^. 8o?., or lis. 5^d. per bushel.
His trouble and expense were, however, increased, because there
were seeds of self-sown red clover and rib-grass on the land,
which had to be got rid of by frequent siftings, and the smaller
Anthyllis seed went with them. This inferior seed was sold,
and the proceeds diminished the cost of drawing, 6cc., from
11^. bd. to 8s. 2d. per bushel on the prime seed.

Mr. Stebbing last year thrashed with a common thrashing-
drum ; passed the cob twice through Holmes' chaff-riddles,
which he highly recommends ; then began drawing by passing
the cob three or four times through that same drum, then again
used the riddle and the fan, and on the last day finished off with
a hired " cannon." The motive power was provided by an
engine, hired at 20s. per day. This year he is using horse-
power, and finds it more economical to put the cob through a
dressing-machine, than to use riddles and fans. The work is not
yet complete (Feb. 19, 1866).

It appears, then, that the yield of seed is generally small, and
the trouble and cost of separating it from the husk or cosh must
always be considerable, so that its price will generally be higher
than that of any other variety of the clover tribe.

I have bought the seed direct from the grower first at Is., then
at Is. Qd. per lb., and am told that the price has risen as high as
2^. Gd. per lb. In France I believe it sells at 2 francs per lb.
and upwards. If, on an average, 3 bushels of seed weighing
70 lbs. each, and worth Is. per lb. can be grown on an acre,
besides 14 ton of stover (worth 4/. 10^.), the return from this crop
will be as good as any that thin chalky land in a dry climate
can produce in these times.

168 Cultivation of Flax in Belgium.

I am inclined to think that when intended for a crop of seed,
the Anthjllis should be grown on land of better quality than that
sown merely for sheep-feed. By acting on this impression I
shall carry out Professor Buckman's view of improvinr/ the plant
by higher culture.

XIV. — On the Cultivation of Flax in BeJf/ium. Report by
R. Percy Ffrench, Second Secretary to H.B.M.'s Legation
at Brussels.*

Introduction.

Pliny, the naturalist, informs us that the Marini, whose territory
corresponded with what is now the South of Flanders, excelled in
the art of weaving flax. There is no doubt but that it was
cultivated to a considerable extent in the eighth century ; for
Charlemagne, in his Capitularies, requires that the ladies of his
Court " shall prepare and spin flax to make garments."

At the beginning of this century flax occupied in Belgium at
least one-third more space than all the other so-called industrial
plants united: since then, and especially since 1840, the extent
of land devoted to this culture has sensibly diminished.

In 1840 there were 40,998 hectares (102,495 acres, nearly)
under flax ; in 184(3, only 29,879 hectares (74,695 acres), yielding
211,782 hectolitres of seed (582,398 bushels), and 17,407,730
kilogrammes (about 17,400 tons) of fibre.

Two varieties are generally grown in Belgium : the " vulgar"
flax, bearing a blue flower, and that which has a white flower.

The last-mentioned, which is grown in the " Pays de Waes,"
gives a coarse but abundant and hardy filament, almost ex-
clusively employed for mixing with hemp. The American white-
flowered flax has been tried in different districts with varied
results. The blue-flowered flax is less hardy, but yields a finer
and softer filament.

The choice of seed is of great importance. There are many
ways of testing its quality, but the surest is by germination : in
some of the localities about Termonde two-year-old seed is con-
sidered preferable. It is winnowed in autumn, exposed five or
six days to the sun, then deposited in a dry place, and stirred
from time to time.

Great attention is paid to the origin of the seed, whether it be
grown for seed or for filament; northern seed being used for the
former, and southern for the latter purpose.

* Placed at the disposal of the Royal Agricultural Society by Her Majesty's
Secretary for Foreign Affairs.

Cultivation of Flax in Belgium. 169

Three sorts of seeds are employed in Belgium — those of Riga
and Zealand, and that of the country, called " Apres-tonne."

The seed grown in the country is generally considered to be
inferior to that of Riga, unless cultivated with especial care and
gathered from plants of a superior quality.

That bearing the name of Zealand is nothing more than seed
gathered in Holland from plants produced from Riga seed. Its
plants are sometimes w^eak, but oftener full and flexible, the
stalks retaining a green hue when ripe ; the filament is also very
fine and flexible. This seed is much used in the Western
Flanders, and chiefly in the district of Courtrai, where the land
is heavy.

The seed of Pernau (situated on the Gulf of Riga) is also much
used: the plants produced by it are vigorous and healthy, and
the filament long, fine, heavy, silky, and of a silvery colour.
Experiments have shown that it gives one-fifteenth more filament
than the seed of Riga.

Climate. — Flax can only be raised in a temperate climate,
neither too Avet nor too dry. Heavy winds, storms, hail, heavy
rain, &c,, are extremely prejudicial to it. The best aspect for it
is to the north and east. If there be too much shade or the
atmospheric influences of warm, damp, heavy weather, the
filament becomes light and weak from the forced growth of
the stalk.

Quality of soil required. — The finest flax is grown on loamy
land, but many varieties of soil will bear a crop, provided they
are properly prepared by deep tillage and manure. On a sandy
soil, the filament, albeit long and fine, will be far less strong than
that grown in a richer soil. In heavy wet land it will grow (in
good seasons) to a great length, but the filament is never fine.
Light fertile land gives a shorter crop, but a finer and silkier
filament. The " Pays de Waiis " bears an European reputation
for its flax, though the soil is sandy ; it is, however, extensively
manured.

Of manures the principal are : ordinary yard-dung, cakes made of
the seed of rape, poppy, hemp, and cameline (or gold of pleasure),
guano, Dutch ashes, lime, and liquid manure. For light land
the ordinary stable-manure is found to be the best. In the
Western Flanders the cakes of rape and poppy are found to
accelerate the growth and to give a finer texture to the filament.
These cakes are also much used in Hainault, and mixed with
cameline, which imparts a beautiful colour to the flax.

According to a calculation made by M. de Gasparin, 100
kilogrammes of dried flax contain 1 kilogramme 12 grammes of
azote taken out of tlie land.

Preparation of the soil. — The preparation of the soil in Belgium,

170 Cultivation of Flax in Belgium.

as elsewhere, naturally depends on the succession of the crops.
Light sandy soil is generally ploughed to a depth of 12 inches,
moderately fertile land 8 inches. Loamy land is ploughed a
second time before winter, and the manure turned in, which
becomes gradually absorbed.

Clover, if it has preceded the flax, is ploughed into the land
in autumn with dung or Dutch ashes, and a harrow passed over
it to level the soil ; a second and third stirring are given before
the winter. In the spring the land is again harrowed and the flax
sown.

After rye and turnips, a light dressing of manure is dug or
ploughed into the land in March ; the plough and harrow are
again used, and Dutch ashes or liquid manure applied a few
days previous to sowing the flax.

After oats, which have been well manured, one turn of plough-
ing is sufficient, and the soil is watered with " purin " (fermented
night-soil).

Flax sown after a crop of hemp gives the best and finest
return.

In the Western Flanders ploughs are generally used, while in
the Eastern Flanders they still use the spade.

In the country about Courtrai they spread over the land,
already half-manured, a mixture of the aforesaid cakes of rape
and poppy, with "purin" in the proportion of from 1200 to
1600 cakes, and from 1800 to 2600 gallons of "purin" per acre.

The mixture is made ten days before using, worked up in tubs
or barrels, and spread uniformly over the whole surface of the soil.

In wet lands these cakes (called " tourteaux ") are reduced to
powder and spread over the land, which is afterwards watered
with "purin" — 1300 to 1550 gallons per acre (150 to 175 hecto-
litres per hectare).

An acre of land, fully prepared for receiving the seed, costs in
the environs of Courtrai from 11. 4^. to 8Z. 4^., thus accounted
for : —

£. s. d. £. s. d.

Rent and taxes 1 10 to 2

Manure of all sorts 5 4 „ 5 14

Labour 10 „ 10

Total 7 4 8 4

In the " Pays de Waes " from 87. to 97. 6s. :—

£. s. d. £. s. d.

Rent and taxes 118 to 2 14

Solid manure 2 10 „ 3

Liquid manure 2 16 „ 2 16

Labour 16 „ 16

Total 8 9 6

Cultivation of Flax in Belgium. 171

About Tournai an acre costs 8/,, and in general an acre of
what is called " lin rame " (fastened to sticks), costs, everything
included, from 14/. to 14Z. 5^.

Rotation of Crops. — Formerly the flax-crop was only taken
every fifteen to twenty years : there is now a great diversity of
opinion on the necessity of so long an interval. In many places
it has been reduced by half, and a crop is taken every seven
years. Rapid succession deteriorates the quality of the fibre,
which is generally considered to be not so good now as it used
to be. The lands of Wynkel St, Eloi, near Courtrai, which Avere
overworked during the Empire, produced no good flax for thirty
years, nor have they yet recovered their former value.

In the Western Flanders the rotation varies from five to ten
years ; Eastern Flanders, five to nine ; Brabant, five to eight ;
and Hainault, seven to twenty years.

In Belgium there are two sowings of flax, the early and the
late, the former between the end of March and the 10th of April,
and the latter from the 15th of April to the end of May.

The flax-growers consider that the early crop produces the
■finest quality of flax, the late crop being good only for coarse
tissues, &c. Much depends naturally on the weather and the
quality of the soil.

The seed is sown thick, if fibre is the object; but thin, to
produce seed ; 13 stone per acre is a common amount. In
Belgium fibre is the principal object, and if not closely planted,
the flax loses its fineness and the stalks are " branchy."

In the Western Flanders it is generally sown alone ; in the
Eastern Flanders with carrots and clover. Flax sown in soft
calm weather appears above ground in about a week or ten days ;
it is then carefully weeded by women. As soon as each plant
has received 1205 degrees of heat after germination, they begin
to bear flowers, and are supported by small sticks to prevent the
crop being laid. The process of weeding costs from 19^. to 28^.
per acre.

The process of gathering is the same throughout the whole
of Belgium. When the plants are standing they are seized by
handfuls, care being taken not to entangle the stalks : if lodged,
they are gathered carefully and shaken so as to separate the tops,
then made into bundles, which are set up in " schocks.' After
ten or fourteen days of fine weather they are made into fresh
bundles, containing 10 to 14 lbs. each, and stowed in barns or
sheds.

An acre of flax gives from 24 to 70 cwt. of stems, containing
from 12 to 18 per cent, of fibrous substance, and producing from
3 to 6 J cwt. of filament fibre.

The cultivation of flax and hemp occupies in the two Flanders,

172 Cultivation of Flax in Belgium.

a part of Brabant and Hainault, from 75,000 to 100,000 acres of
excellent land. This has to be carefully tilled and manured in
order to produce 20,000 tons of what is called " lin teille " (peeled
flax), representing in value at least 1,440,000/. As a raw farm-
produce it yields 120,000 tons of green flax.

The number of labourers who find employment in the pro-
ducing, steeping, scutching, cleaning, and exporting of flax,
cannot be ascertained.

On an average, the exports amount to 18,000 tons of vegetable
fibre. In 1860 the value was estimated at 880,000/., now much
exceeded, owing to the cotton crisis.

In Flanders there were lately 220,551 female hand-spinners,
57,148 weavers, and 60,000 souls employed in cleaning, pre-
paring, bleaching yarns, &c.

In 1846, 74,695 acres of flax were grown in Belgium ; in 1856,
82,090 acres ; showing an increase of 7393 acres.

In 1846, the quantity of flax produced amounted to 17,405
tons, making an average of about 37 stone per acre.

The entire extent of land under cultivation in this country
amounts to 4,576,290 acres ; and since of these 82,090 are given
up to flax, this crop constitutes ^jifijth upon the whole.

The rise in the price of cotton, occasioned by the American
war, has led to an increase in the cultivation of flax, reckoned at
22,000 to 25,000 acres.

There are two systems of steeping generally followed in
Begium — one, " rural steeping," in the open air ; and the other,
in covered barns, called " American factory."

The rural system is subdivided into steeping by dew and
steeping in rivers.

The first named, principally practised in the provinces ol
Hainault and Namur, and the cantons of Grammont and Ninove,
consists in spreading the flax over a field of grass or clover late
in the autumn, or in the months of January and February. The
winter steeping gives the best and whitest flax.

In France, before spreading, it is customary to wet it with a
solution of alkali ; and in Holland with sea-water, to prevent its
being stained. This process of steeping occupies about a month.
The expense of this process is on an average 195. per acre. This
system produces a grey or bluish fibre, and is only resorted to in
places where water is scarce.

Steeping in Stagnant Pools. — The water should be as clear as
possible, and devoid of iron or chalk, which affect the quality and
colour of the flax.

In the province of Waes, two sorts of " routoirs " (steeping-
pools) are employed — the " routoir bleu argentin," which owes
its colour to the natural sediment of the soil, and the " routoir

Cultivation of Flax in Belgium. 173

jaune," also owing its colour to the same natural causes. Alder-
leaves and poppy-heads are supposed to improve the colour of
the flax. The flax-plants are made into bundles, placed in the
pool, and covered with planks and stones to keep them under
water, and are left to soak for ten or twelve days. This process
costs from \'^s. to IZ. per acre.

Steeping in Rivers. — The flax must be a year old, and the
stream limpid, so as to preserve the whiteness of the filament.
In the environs of Courtrai it is generally kept for two or three
years before being steeped. It is placed either horizontally or
vertically ; flax steeped horizontally is not so white, but more
soft, the water making its way through it much less rapidly, so
as